FIELD  CROPS 

A.D.WILSON 

AND 

C.W.  WARBURTON 


AGRIC. 
LIBRARY 


FIELD  CROPS 


BY 


A.  D.  WILSON 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  INSTITUTES  AND  AGRICULTURAL 

EXTENSION,  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


AND 


C.  W.  WARBURTON 

AGRONOMIST,    BUREAU  OF  PLANT    INDUSTRY,   UNITED 
STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


THIRD  EDITION 


AGRIC. 

,:8r»ARY 


COPYRIGHT,  1912, 

BY 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
All  Rights  Reserved 


PREFACE 

In  preparing  this  manual  of  the  field  crops  of  the  United 
States,  the  needs  of  the  secondary  schools  where  agriculture 
is  taught  have  been  kept  particularly  in  mind.  The  develop- 
ment of  agricultural  high  schools  and  of  agricultural  courses 
in  the  regular  high  schools  has  been  so  rapid  in  the  past  few 
years  that  the  demand  for  suitable  text-books  is  as  yet 
largely  unfilled.  The  instructors  in  these  schools  have  been 
compelled  to  adapt  to  their  uses  college  texts  on  the  leading 
agricultural  subjects,  to  supply  the  necessary  matter  in  the 
form  of  lectures,  or  to  supplement  the  necessarily  brief  treat- 
ment which  is  given  these  subjects  within  the  limits  of  a 
single  volume  covering  the  whole  field  of  elementary  agri- 
culture. It  is  hoped  that  the  present  booK  will  prove  to  be 
a  useful  basis  for  instruction  in  the  subject  of  field  crops. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  discuss  each  individual  crop 
as  fully  as  some  instructors  may  desire  and  yet  keep  within 
the  limits  of  a  usable  volume.  Consequently,  the  discussion 
has  been  made  as  brief  as  is  consistent  with  completeness, 
and  repetition  has  been  avoided  by  numerous  cross-refer- 
ences. Suggestions  have  also  been  made  for  supplementary 
reading  in  the  way  of  Farmers'  Bulletins,  which  may  be 
obtained  free  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  and  of  standard  volumes,  most  of  which  should 
find  a  place  in  the  school  library.  In  addition,  the  local 
experiment  station  should  be  drawn  upon  for  such  of  its 
publications  as  may  prove  useful. 

One  other  feature  needs  comment.  The  laboratory 
exercise  which  appear  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are 
merely  suggestive;  since  in  the  class-room,  special  emphasis 


should  be  given  to  the  particular  crops  which  are  of  impor- 
tance in  the  region  where  the  instruction  is  given.  Fre- 
quent visits  should  be  made  to  farms  in  the  vicinity,  and  as 
many  of  the  crops  as  possible  studied  at  first  hand.  Small 
plats  of  some  crops  not  common  in  the  community  may  well 
be  grown  on  the  school  farm  to  supply  illustrative  material. 

While  the  book  is  designed  primarily  for  text  use,  the 
authors  trust  that  it  will  also  be  of  interest  to  farmers  and 
to  those  who  desire  to  become  farmers.  The  results  of  many 
experiments  have  been  embodied  in  the  text,  as  have  also 
the  practical  experiences  of  many  good  farmers.  The  aim 
throughout  has  been  to  make  a  simple,  practical,  readable 
manual. 

Our  acknowledgments  are  due  to  various  officials  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  to  the  Ohio, 
Kansas,  and  Minnesota  experiment  stations  for  illustrative 
material. 

A.  D.  WILSON. 

C.  W.  WARBURTON. 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  July,  1912. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I— INTRODUCTION 
CHAPTER  I 

Page 

Classification  of  Field  Crops.— Definition  of  Terms.  Clas- 
sification of  Crops.  Relative  Importance.  Description  of  Classes. 
Uses  of  Crops.  Choice  of  Crops.  Diversification 11 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Growth  of  Plants.— The  Seed  and  Its  Germination. 
What  the  Leaves  Do.  The  Roots  and  Their  Uses.  Elements  of 
Plant  Food  and  Their  Uses.  The  Production  of  Seed 23 

PART  II— GRAIN  CROPS 

CHAPTER  III 

Corn. — Origin  and  Description.  Classification.  Importance. 
Soils  and  Fertilizers.  Preparation  of  the  Soil.  Preparation  of 
Seed  for  Planting.  Planting.  Cultivation.  Harvesting.  Fod- 
der Corn.  Corn  for  Silage.  Marketing  and  Returns.  Corn  in 
Crop  Rotations.  Diseases  and  Insects.  Uses.  Selection  of  Seed 
Corn.  Storing  the  Seed.  Improvement.  Judging 47 

CHAPTER  IV 

Wheat. — Description  and  Classification.  Importance.  Soils 
and  Fertilizers.  Growing  the  Crop.  Harvesting  and  Thrashing. 
Marketing  and  Market  Grades.  Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies. 
Relation  to  Other  Crops.  Uses.  Methods  of  Improvement 135 

CHAPTER  V 

Oats. — History  and  Description.  Importance.  Production. 
Harvesting.  Marketing  and  Returns.  Insects  and  Diseases.  Ro- 
tations. Uses.  Improvement 175 


S  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 

Page 

Barley. — History  and  Description.  Importance.  Production. 
Harvesting.  Marketing  and  Returns.  Insects  and  Diseases.  Ro- 
tations. Uses.  Improvement 212 

CHAPTER  VII 

Rye. — Origin  and  Description,  Production.  Growing  the 
Crop.  Diseases.  Uses 234 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Flax. — History  and  Description.  Importance.  Growing  the 
Crop 241 

CHAPTER  IX 

Miscellaneous  Grain  Crops. — Rice.  The  Grain  Sorghums. 
Broom  Corn.  Buckwheat.  Millet 255 

PART  III— FORAGE  CROPS 
CHAPTER  X 

Introduction. — Importance.  Classification.  Forage  Produc- 
tion. Uses  of  Forage.  Essentials  of  a  Forage  Crop.  Feeding 
Value 271 

CHAPTER  XI 

The  Making  of  a  Meadow. — Essentials.  Formation  of  a 
Meadow.  Sowing  in  Mixtures.  Preparing  the  Land.  The  Seed. 
Use  of  Nurse  Crop.  Seeding.  Care  of  the  Meadow 279 

CHAPTER  XII 

Hay  and  Hay-Making.— Hay  Plants.  Production  of  Hay. 
Time  to  Cut.  Curing.  Machinery.  Storing.  Baling.  Market 
Classes 291 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Pastures. — Importance.  Essentials.  Formation  of  a  Pas- 
ture. Pasture  Plants.  Improving  Native  Pastures.  Management 
of  Pastures. .  .  301 


CONTENTS  9 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Page 

The  Grasses. — Definition.  General  Characters.  Differences. 
Reason  for  Importance.  Comparative  Value  of  Different  Grasses.  307 

CHAPTER  XV 

Perennial  Grasses. — Timothy.  Kentucky  Blue  Grass.  Red- 
top.  Orchard  Grass.  Bermuda  Grass.  Johnson  Grass.  Brome 
Grass.  Wheat  Grasses.  Fescues.  Rye  Grasses 311 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Annual  Forage  Grasses. — The  Sorghums.  Foxtail  Millets. 
Other  Millets.  The  Small  Grains.  Corn.  Teosinte 336 

CHAPTER  XVII 

What  Legumes  Are. — General  Characters.  Differences.  Im- 
portance. How  the  Legumes  Gather  Nitrogen.  Nitrifying  Bac- 
teria. Inoculation 348 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

The  Clovers. — Red  Clover:  Importance,  Soils,  Management. 
White  Clover.  Alsike  Clover.  Crimson  Clover 355 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Alfalfa. — Description.  Production.  Soils.  Seedings.  Care 
of  the  Meadow.  Making  the  Hay.  Seed  Production.  Rota- 
tions. Uses 374 

CHAPTER  XX 

Miscellaneous  Legumes. — Cowpea.  Soy  Bean.  Peanut. 
Field  Pea.  Field  Bean.  Sweet  Clover.  Bur  Clover.  Japan 
Clover.  Vetch.  Velvet  Bean 390 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Root  Crops. — Mangels.  Carrots.  Turnips  and  Rutabagas. 
Cabbage  and  Kohlrabi.  Rape  and  Kale 412 


10  CONTENTS 

PART  IV— MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS 
CHAPTER  XXII 

Page 

Root  and  Tuber  Food  Crops.— The  Potato:  Importance, 
Soils  and  Fertilizers,  Production,  Marketing,  Improvement.  The 
Sweet  Potato:  Description,  Importance,  Method  of  Production.  422 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

Sugar  Plants.— The  Sugar  Beet :  Importance,  Culture,  Manu- 
facture of  Sugar,  By-Products,  Sugar  Cane:  Characteristics, 
Propagation,  Soils,  Production,  Making  the  Sugar 451 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

Fiber  Plants. — Cotton:  Description,  Varieties,  Importance, 
Production,  Soils  and  Fertilizers,  Crop  Management,  Marketing, 
Insects,  and  Diseases.  Flax.  Hemp 463 

CHAPTER  XXV 

Tobacco. — Characteristics.  Production.  Soils  and  Fertilizers. 
Crop  Management.  Curing  and  Marketing 487 

PART  V— CONCLUDING  CHAPTERS 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

Rotation  of  Crops. — Advantages.  Effect  on  Physical  Condi- 
dition  of  Soil.  Keeping  down  Weeds.  Effect  on  Crop  Yields. 
Distribution  of  Farm  Labor.  Relation  to  Soil  Fertility.  Classes 
of  Crops.  What  Crops  to  Grow.  Application  of  Manure.  Rota- 
tions for  Different  Sections 503 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

Weeds. — Classes  of  Weeds.  Damage  from  Weeds.  Benefits 
from  Weeds.  How  Weeds  Spread.  Methods  of  Eradication 522 


FIELD   CROPS 


PART  I— INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  I 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  FIELD  CROPS 

1.  Introduction.  The  cultivation  of  crops  is  one  of  the 
first  evidences  of  a  permanent  civilization.  Savages  live 
on  the  spoils  of  the  hunt  and  on  such  fruits,  nuts,  and  other 
vegetable  products  as  nature  supplies.  Some  of  the  wander- 
ing tribes  in  the  beginnings  of  civilization  domesticated  the 
horse,  the  ox,  and  the  sheep;  but  these  animals  were  herded 
on  the  natural  pasture  lands,  and  the  tribes  moved  from 
place  to  place  with  them  as  the  grasses  furnished  or  failed  to 
furnish  pasture  for  their  herds  and  flocks.  The  next  stage 
in  civilization  was  the  growing  of  plants  for  their  seeds  and 
fruits  to  assure  the  food  supply  of  the  tribe  and  to  furnish 
forage  for  the  domesticated  animals.  A  natural  result  of 
this  production  of  crops  was  the  storage  of  these  products 
for  use  during  the  winter  and  against  times  of  famine.  Crop 
production  required  a  more  or  less  fixed  habitation,  for  the 
crop  had  to  be  protected  from  the  depredations  of  animals 
and  of  hostile  tribes  from  the  time  of  its  planting  till  harvest, 
while  permanent  storehouses  for  the  food  supply  had  to 
be  built  and  guarded.  The  building  of  permanent  habita- 


12 


tions  and  the  beginnings  of  home  life  can  thus  be  traced 
directly  to  the  cultivation  of  crops. 

2.  Agriculture    and   Horticulture.    Agriculture,    in   the 
original  sense,  meant  field  culture,  while  horticulture  meant 
the  growing  of  crops  within  a  garden  or  inclosure.     Both 
words  are  from  the  Latin;  the  difference  in  terms  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  Roman  farmers  lived  within  walled  inclo- 
sures,  the  better  to  protect  themselves  and  their  stores  of 
food  from  their  enemies.     The  larger  areas  in  crops,  the  food 
grains  and  the  forage  for  animals,  were  outside  the  walls, 
and  the  tilling  of  these  crops  was  agriculture,  from  ager, 
field,  and  cultura,  culture   or  cultivation.     The  fruit  and 

.vegetable  crops,  which  required  only  small  areas  and  were 
given  special  care,  were  grown  within  the  walls  and  their 
tilling  was  horticulture,  from  hortus,  yard  or  inclosure,  and 
cultura.  In  modern  times,  however,  agriculture  has  come 
to  have  a  broader  meaning,  including  all  the  operations  of 
the  farm,  such  as  stock-raising,  the  production  of  field  crops, 
horticulture,  and  the  manufacture  of  dairy  and  other  prod- 
ucts. The  tilling  of  the  soil  and  the  production  of  field 
crops  are  now  usually  included  under  the  term  "  agronomy." 

3.  Cultivated  Plants.    The  number  of  cultivated  plants 
other  than  ornamental,  according  to  De  Candolle  in  his 
"Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,"  is  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty.    Of  these,  four-fifths  are  natives  of  the  Old  World. 
Seventy-seven  are  cultivated  for  their  fruits,  sixty-six  for 
their  seeds,  and  sixty-five  for  their  stems  or  leaves.    Most 
of  the  remainder  are  grown  for  their  underground  parts, 
which  may  be  thickened  roots,  as  the  beet,  or  tubers,  as  the 
potato. 

4.  Field  Crops.     In  this  book,  only  those  crops  which  are 
ordinarily  grown  in  large  areas  under  field  culture   (the 
"  agriculture  "  of  the  Romans)   are  included.     In  general, 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CROPS  13 

extensive  rather  than  intensive  methods  are  used  in  the  culti- 
vation of  field  crops.  This  rule  does  not  always  hold  true; 
the  most  careful  and  intensive  methods  are  used  in  the 
culture  of  sugar  beets  and  of  some  types  of  tobacco,  while 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  sometimes  grown  in  large  areas 
by  extensive  or  field  methods. 

5.  Classification  of  Field  Crops.     It  is  rather  difficult  to 
make  a  definite  classification  of  field  crops,  for  certain  uses 
may  be  made  of  a  given  crop  under  one  set  of  conditions 
and  other  and  very  different  uses  under  another.    New 
uses  are  continually  being  made  of  the  various  crops,  so  that 
a  classification  made  now  might  be  materially  wrong  in  a 
few  years.    The   principal   field   crops   can,   however,   be 
included  in  some  one  of  the  following  classes:    Grain,  hay 
and  forage,  fiber,  tuber,  root,  sugar  plants,  and  stimulant. 
This  classification  is  based  in  part  on  the  portions  of  the 
plants  which  are  used,  and  in  part  on  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  put.     Medicinal  plants  and  a  few  others  of  a  mis- 
cellaneous nature  are  not  grown  to  any  considerable  extent 
and  need  not  be  considered  at  length. 

6.  Relative  Importance.    The  1910  census  reports  show 
that  the  total  area  in  field  and  garden  crops  in  the  United 
States  was,  in  1909,  311,000,000  acres,  of  which  all  but  about 
10,000,000    acres  were  in   field   crops.     These    10,000,000 
acres  were  devoted  to  garden  and  orchard  crops.     The  to- 
tal area  of  improved  farm  land  was  more  than  478,000,000 
acres,  leaving  something  like  167,000,000  acres  in  pastures 

VALUE _  AREA 

BHHBMBDBHHHHEBBKH    GRAIN    ^^EOSBOOBSSaan 

FIBRE  mm 


\ALLOTHERSm 

Fig.  1.     Relative  areas  and  values  of  the  important  classes  of  farm  crops. 


14  FIELD  CROPS 

and  improved  woodlands.  Of  the  311,000,000  acres  in 
field  crops,  about  191,000,000  acres,  or  about  61  per  cent, 
were  in  grain  crops;  72,000,000  acres,  or  about  23  per 
cent,  in  hay  and  forage  crops;  about  10  per  cent  in  fiber 
crops,  and  the  remainder  in  tuber,  root,  sugar,  stimulant, 
and  miscellaneous  crops. 

Of  the  total  value  of  $2,998,704,412  for  all  crops,  as  re- 
ported for  the  Census  of  1900,  approximately  50  per  cent 
was  grain  crops;  $484,000,000,  or  about  16  per  cent,  hay 
and  forage  crops;  and  $325,000,000,  or  about  11  per  cent, 
fiber  crops.  The  1910  census  shows  very  little  change  in  the 
relative  values,  though  all  crops  are  very  much  increased 
in  value  over  those  of  1900.  The  value  of  all  grain  crops 
in  19091  was  $2,665,539,714,  or  nearly  as  much  as  the  value  of 
all  crop  combined  in  1899.  The  value  of  the  cotton  crop  was 
$703,000,000,  as  compared  with  $325,000,000  for  all  fiber 
crops  in  1899;  while  the  value  of  hay  and  forage  increased 
to  $824,000,000  in  the  decade.  The  value  of  all  field  crops  was 
$5,487,161,223  for  the  year.  Again,  dividing  the  total  val- 
ue of  crops  in  1909  by  6,361,502,  the  number  of  farms  in 
the  United  States  in  1910,  gives  an  average  value  per  farm 
of  $863,  as  against  $523  per  farm  for  1899. 

7.  Grain  Crops.  A  grain  crop  is  one  which  is  grown 
principally  for  the  production  of  its  seeds;  the  most  impor- 
tant grains  are  the  cereals,  which  are  grasses  grown  for  their 
seeds.  The  more  important  cereals  in  the  United  States 
are  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  rice.  Millet  and 
sorghum  are  also  cereals,  though  some  types  of  these  two 

iThe  census  is  known  as  the  census  of  1910,  but  the  figures  of  crop  yields 
and  values  are  for  the  previous  year,  1909. 


GRAIN  CROPS 


15 


crops  are  grown  for  forage  rather  than  for  grain.  Buck- 
wheat and  flax  are  the  only  important  grain  crops  which  are 
not  cereals,  unless  such  crops  as  the  field  pea,  the  cowpea, 
and  the  soy  bean  are  included.  The  last  named  crops  are 
usually  grown  for  forage,  but  may  be  harvested  for  their 
seeds.  The  area  in  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  flax,  rice, 
and  buckwheat  in  1909,  according  to  the  Census  figures, 
was  191,300,000  acres;  the  total  production  was  4,500,298,000 
bushels;  and  the  total  value,  $2,726,827,000.  The  acreage, 
production,  and  value  of  each  of  these  crops  are  shown  in 
Table  I. 

Table  I.  Acreage,  production,  and  value  of  each  of  the  important 
grain  crops  in  the  United  States  in  1909,  and  the  total  for  all 
grain  crops. 


Acreage. 

Production. 

Value. 

Corn 

Acres 

98  383  000 

Bushels 

2,552,190,000 

Dollars 

1,477,223,000 

Wheat  
Oats. 

44,261,000 
35,159,000 

683,350,000 
1,007,129,000 

673,653,000 
405,120,000 

Barley     

7,698,000 

173,121,000 

93,526,000 

Rye  

2,196.000 

29,520,000 

21,164,000 

Flax  
Buckwheat  
Rice 

2,083,000 
878,000 
600  000 

19,513,000 
14,849,000 
20,626  000 

29,795,000 
10,346,000 
16,377,000 

Totals  

191,258,000 

4,500,298,000 

2,727,204,000 

The  improved  farm  acreage  in  the  United  States  in  1909 
was  477,424,000  acres.  Of  this  total,  40.09  per  cent  was  in 
grain  crops,  as  follows:  Corn,  20.61  per  cent;  wheat,  9.28 
per  cent;  oats,  7.36  per  cent;  barley,  1.61  per  cent;  rye,  0.46 
per  cent;  flax,  0.44  per  cent;  buckwheat,  0.18  per  cent;  and 
rice,  0.15  per  cent.  The  percentages  of  each  of  the  important 
grain  crops  as  compared  with  the  total  of  all  grains  in  acre- 
age, yield,  and  value  are  shown  in  Table  II. 


16 


FIELD  CROPS 


Table  II.  The  relative  importance  of  the  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley 
and  other  grain  crops  of  the  United  States,  as  indicated  by  the 
percentages  of  the  total  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  all  grain 
crops. 


Acreage. 

Production 
in    bushels. 

Production 
in  pounds. 

Value. 

Corn 

Per  cent 

51.43 

Per  cent 

56.72 

Per  cent 
6207 

Per  cent 

54  17 

Wheat                

23.14 

15.18 

17.81 

24.70 

Oats        

18.38 

22.38 

13.99 

14.86 

Barley  

4.03 

3.85 

4.22 

3.43 

Other  grains 

302 

1  87 

1  91 

284 

8.  Forage  Crops.  Next  to  the  grains,  forage  crops  are 
of  most  importance.  A  forage  plant  is  one  which  is  fed  to 
stock  in  the  green  state  or  when  cured  into  hay  or  fodder; 
the  leaves  and  stems  or  the  whole  plant  may  be  used.  In 


Fig.  2.     Abundant  farm  crops  and  prosperous,  well-tilled  farms  result 
when  grain  and  stock  farming  are  wisely  combined. 


FORAGE  AND  FIBER  CROPS  17 

addition  to  the  harvested  hay  and  fodder  crops,  this  class 
includes  the  pasture  plants.  The  total  area  in  harvested 
forage  crops  in  1909  was  71,915,000  acres,  or  15.06  per  cent 
of  the  total  acreage  of  improved  farm  land.  The  production 
of  hay  and  forage  was  97,147,000  tons,  and  the  value  of  this 
forage  was  $822,476,000.  No  definite  value  can  be  placed 
on  the  acreage  in  pasture,  which  is  much  greater  than  the 
acreage  in  harvested  forage  crops. 

Nearly  all  forage  crops  may  be  included  in  one  of  two 
general  classes,  the  grasses  and  the  legumes.  The  first 
includes  timothy,  blue  grass,  redtop,  brome  grass,  Bermuda 
grass,  Johnson  grass,  and  all  similar  crops;  the  legumes 
include  such  crops  as  alfalfa,  red  clover,  white  clover,  cow- 
peas,  soy  beans,  Japan  clover,  and  field  peas.  Most  of  these 
are  grown  ordinarily  for  forage,  either  as  hay  or  pasture 
crops,  though  a  few,  such  as  field  peas,  cowpeas,  soy  beans, 
field  beans,  and  peanuts,  may  be  grown  for  their  seeds. 

Of  the  nearly  72,000,000  acres  in  harvested  hay  and  forage 
crops  reported  by  the  Census  of  1910,  27.17  per  cent  was  in 
mixed  timothy  and  clover  meadow;  23.45  per  cent  in  wild, 
salt,  or  prairie  grasses,  and  20.4  per  cent  in  timothy  alone. 
Alfalfa  occupied  6.54  per  cent  of  this  area;  clover  alone,  3.4 
per  cent;  grains  cut  green  for  hay,  5.92  per  cent;  and  coarse 
fodder,  such  as  sorghum  and  fodder  corn,  5.69  per  cent. 

9.  Fibers.  The  fiber  crops  grown  in  the  United  States 
are  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp.  Of  these  three,  cotton  is  by  far 
the  most  important.  Its  cultivation  is  confined  to  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  country,  including  Texas  and 
Oklahoma.  The  cotton  crop  ranks  second  in  value  of  all 
our  field  crops,  being  surpassed  only  by  corn.  Flax  is 
grown  principally  for  grain;  its  use  as  fiber  is  merely  inci- 
dental. Hemp  is  produced  in  a  limited  way  in  a  few  scat- 
tered areas. 


18 


FIELD  CROPS 


10.  Tubers.     The   only   important   tuber    crop   is   the 
potato,  sometimes  locally  known  as  the  Irish  or  white  potato 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  sweet  potato,  which  is  a  root,  not 
a  tuber.     This  is  one  of  our  important  food  crops,  the  pro- 
duction in  1909  being  389,195,000  bushels,  valued  at  $210,- 
667,000.    It  occupies  0.77  per  cent  of  the  area  of  improved 
farm  land,  and  ranks  sixth  in  value  among  our  field  crops. 

11.  Roots.     The  principal  root  crop  of  the  United  States 
is  the  sweet  potato,  which  was  grown  on  641,000  acres  in 


Fig.  3.     There  are  broad  fields  of  well-cultivated  sugar  beets,  our 
most  important  root  crop. 

1909,  with  a  production  of  59,222,000  bushels.  Other  root 
crops  are  grown  principally  for  stock  feeding,  as  the  mangel, 
carrot,  turnip,  and  rutabaga.  This  class  of  crops  occupied 
only  18,916  acres  in  1909,  with  a  production  of  254,533  tons. 
The  sugar  beet  is  a  root  crop  which  is  grown  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar.  It  is  discussed  under  the  heading  of 
sugar  crops. 

12.  Sugar  Crops.     Two  important  sugar  crops  are  grown 
in  the  United  States,  the  sugar  cane  and  the  sugar  beet. 


THE  USES  OF  CHOPS  19 

Sugar  cane  is  much  the  older  source  of  sugar;  the 
development  of  the  sugar  beet  industry  in  America  is  com- 
paratively recent,  and  it  is  only  in  the  last  few  years  that  the 
production  of  beet  sugar  has  surpassed  that  of  cane  sugar  in 
the  United  States.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  is  limited 
practically  to  Louisiana  and  Texas,  though  the  crop  is  grown 
generally  over  the  South  for  sirup  production.  The  sugar 
beet  is  grown  over  a  wide  range  of  country,  from  New  York 
to  California.  The  production  of  cane  sugar  in  the  United 
States  in  1909  was  325,000  long  tons,  and  of  beet  sugar, 
458,000  long  tons.  The  sugar  crop  ranked  eighth  in  value 
for  that  year,  falling  just  below  tobacco. 

13.  Stimulants  and  Sedatives.    The  only  stimulant  or 
sedative  crop  which  is  grown  to  any  extent  in  the  United 
States  is  tobacco.     This  crop  was  grown  on  1,295,000  acres 
in  1909,  or  0.27  per  cent  of  our  improved  farm  land.     The 
production  amounted  to  1,055,765,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$106,000,000,  making  it  rank  seventh  in  value  among  our 
field  crops. 

14.  Miscellaneous  and  Medicinal  Crops.    None  of  the 
miscellaneous  and  medicinal  crops   is    grown   on   a   large 
scale.     Among  them  may  be  mentioned  broomcorn,  hops, 
the  castor  bean,  mustard,  and  various  kinds  of  mint. 

15.  The  Uses  of  Crops.    The  principal  uses  of  field  crops 
are  to  supply  food  and  clothing  for  humanity,  to  feed  ani- 
mals, to  maintain  or  to  restore  the  vegetable  matter  and  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  prevent  the  loss  of  fertility  through 
erosion  or  other  means.    The  principal  food  crops  of  the 
United  States  are  wheat,  corn,  rice,  potatoes,  and  sweet 
potatoes.    Other  crops  which  are  used  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  for  human  food  are  oats,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  the 
sugar   beet,   and   sugar   cane.     The   plants   which   supply 
material  for  clothing  are  cotton  and  flax.     Many  plants 


20  FIELD  CROPS 

furnish  food  for  man  indirectly  by  being  fed  to  animals,  to 
be  transformed  into  meat,  butter,  and  milk.  Corn,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  and  the  grasses  and  clovers  are  the  important 
food  crops  for  the  domestic  animals  which  do  useful  work  for 
man  or  furnish  him  with  food.  Some  crops  maintain  or  add 
to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  by  supplying  the  vegetable  matter 
necessary  for  the  continuance  of  plant  growth.  Others, 
by  providing  a  soil  cover  which  prevents  washing,  leaching, 
and  other  natural  losses,  help  to  retain  the  fertility  for  the 
production  of  useful  crops. 


Fig.  4.     By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  corn  crop  is  fed  on  the  farm 
and  marketed  in  the  concentrated  form  of  animal  products. 

16.  The  Right  Crops  to  Grow.  The  choice  of  field  crops 
for  a  given  farm  or  locality  depends  to  some  extent  on  the 
climate  and  soil  conditions,  the  kind  of  farming,  and  the 
proximity  of  the  market.  Climate  limits  the  production  of 
some  crops.  Cotton,  for  instance,  can  be  grown  profitably 
only  where  the  summers  are  long  and  hot.  Winter  wheat 
may  thrive  where  spring  wheat  is  wholly  unprofitable. 
Some  crops  grow  best  on  a  sandy  soil,  others  on  clay.  We 
can  materially  change  the  nature  of  a  soil  by  tillage,  drainage, 
and  the  application  of  fertilizers,  so  as  to  make  it  suitable  for 


THE  CHOICE  OF  CROPS 


21 


many  crops,  but  soil  types  limit  to  some  extent  the  growth 
and  profitableness  of  some  of  our  most  important  crop 
plants.  The  quality  and  value  of  tobacco  are  influenced 
more  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  on  which  it  is  grown  than  by 
any  other  factor.  It  is  usually  a  good  plan  to  follow  the 
general  practice  ,of  a  neighborhood  in  choosing  the  crops  to 
grow,  though  a  new  crop  may  sometimes  be  introduced 
with  profit. 


Fig.  5.     On  the  way  to  market.    Beef  represents  farm  crops  converted 
into  a  form  that  is  more  useful  to  man. 

The  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  a  crop  is  a  decided  factor 
in  its  choice.  On  a  dairy  farm,  forage  crops  are  of  prime 
importance.  The  selection  of  these  crops  and  the  relative 
areas  to  be  devoted  to  them  depend  on  the  special  methods 
which  are  followed.  Some  crops  are  suitable  for  pasture, 
others  for  hay,  and  still  others  for  cutting  for  green  feed 
(soiling).  On  a  farm  where  beef  or  pork  is  produced,  the 
growing  of  grain  is  often  more  important  than  the  produc- 
tion of  forage.  On  a  grain  or  cotton  farm,  forage  production 
is  of  little  consequence,  except  to  furnish  feed  for  the  neces- 


22  FIELD  CROPS 

sary  work  animals.  Market  facilities  are  often  a  deciding 
factor  in  the  selection  of  crops,  for  bulky  crops  like  hay  might 
be  produced  profitably  for  a  near-by  market,  while  the 
profit  would  be  consumed  by  the  transportation  charges  if 
it  were  necessary  to  haul  the  product  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. It  is  usually  advantageous  to  market  crops  in  a 
condensed  form.  Feeding  forage  and  grain  crops  on  the 
farm  and  marketing  them  in  the  form  of  live  stock  or  live- 
stock products  help  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  if 
the  manure  is  utilized,  while  the  expense  of  marketing  is 
reduced. 

17.  Diversification.  It  is  not  often  safe  to  depend 
entirely  on  a  single  crop.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  make 
a  specialty  of  a  crop,  and  to  become  known  as  a  producer  of 
high  quality  oats  or  corn  or  cotton  or  some  other  product  of 
unusual  excellence.  This  often  results  in  materially  increased 
profits,  but  only  a  portion  of  the  farm  should  be  devoted  to 
any  particular  crop  each  year.  It  is  often  the  case  that 
unfavorable  conditions  which  cause  a  partial  or  complete 
failure  of  one  crop  may  be  suitable  for  another.  In  diversity 
of  crops  there  is  safety.  Some  of  the  reasons  for  diversifi- 
cation and  systematic  crop  sequence  are  given  in  the  chapter 
on  Crop  Rotation. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Burkett's  Farm  Crops.,  pp.  43-83. 
Davenport's  Domesticated  Animals  and  Plants. 
De  Candolle's  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants. 
Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  1-12. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS 

18.  Introduction.     It  is  neither  desirable  nor  necessary 
to  set  down  in  detail  the  processes  which  are  involved  in 
the  germination  of  seeds  and  the  growth  of  plants,  the  uses 
of  the  different  elements  of  plant  food,  and  the  effects  of  til- 
lage, drainage,  and  other  factors  on  crop  production.     The 
study  of  growth  processes  is  more  properly  a  part  of  the  work 
in  botany,  while  plant  food,  cultivation,  moisture  supply, 
and  other  subjects  of  similar  nature  may  best  be  discussed 
along  with  the  study  of  soils.     A  brief  outline  of  the  way  in 
which  plants  grow,  however,  should  be  of  value  to  the  student 
or  the  producer  of  field  crops,  in  affording  a  better  under- 
standing of  many  of  the  cultural  methods  and  other  matters 
which  will  be  taken  up  in  detail  in  the  discussion  of  each 
crop. 

THE  SEED  AND  ITS  GERMINATION 

19.  What  the  Seed  Is.    A  seed  is  a  reproductive  body 
produced    by    flowering    plants.     It    contains    an    embryo 
plantlet  and  usually  an  amount  of  plant  food,  all  surrounded 
by  one  or  more  seed  coats.     Nearly  all  field  crops  are  grown 
from  seed,  though  a  few,  such  as  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  sugar  cane  are  grown  from  divisions  of  the  roots  or 
stalks.    The  seed  consists  of  a  minute  plant,  the  embryo, 
and  the  store   of  plant   food   which   surrounds   it.    This 
embryo  may  be  seen  very  readily  in  a  pea  or  bean.     If  the 
seeds  of  these  plants  are  soaked  in  water  for  a  few  hours,  the 
skin  or  outer  protective  covering  may  easily  be  removed.     If 


24  FIELD  CROPS 

the  halves  are  then  separated,  a  minute  plantlet  will  be 
found  adhering  to  one  of  them.  This  is  the  live  portion  of 
the  seed,  which,  under  proper  conditions,  will  start  into 
growth  and  produce  a  mature  plant.  This  plantlet  or  embryo 
is  attached  to  both  halves  of  the  seed  in  its  natural  state, 
and  forms  a  sort  of  hinge  between  them.  The  embryo  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  plumule,  which  grows  upward  and 
forms  the  stem  and  leaves,  and  the  radicle,  which  grows 
down  into  the  soil  and  forms  the  roots.  The  thick,  fleshy 
portions  consist  largely  of  starch,  which,  as  growth  begins, 
is  changed  to  a  form  which  can  be  used  by  the  embryo,  and 
which  supports  the  plantlet  till  it  can  form  roots  and  leaves 
of  its  own  and  obtain  its  food  from  the  soil  and  air. 

20.  Good  Seed.     Seed,  to  be  of  value,  must  be  viable, 
or  "live."     Its  viability,  or  power  to  germinate  and  produce 
strong,  healthy  plants,  depends  on  the  plant  which  bore  it, 
its  maturity,  its  age,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  has 
been  kept.     The  plant  which  bore  the  seed  must  have  been 
strong  and  healthy,  or  the  seed  will  be  weak  and  lacking 
in  vigor.     Live  seed  must  be  fully  matured;  the  embryo  is 
not  wholly  developed  in  unripe  or  immature  seed,  and  the 
supply  of  plant  food  is  less  than  in  mature  seed.     Good  seed 
is  usually  fresh  seed;  crop  plants  differ  greatly  in  the  length 
of  time  during  which  they  retain  their  viability,  but  the  vigor 
and  strength  of  germination  usually  decrease  rapidly  after 
the  seed  is  two  years  old.     The  conditions  under  which  the 
seed  has  been  kept  are  also  of  material  effect.     Ordinarily, 
seed  should  be  well  cured,  and  kept  in  a  dry  place  where  it 
will  not  freeze.     Many  seeds,  however,  are  not  injured  by 
frost  if  they  are  fully  cured  and  dry  when  frozen. 

21.  Germination.    Seeds  germinate  or  start  into  growth 
under  certain  conditions.     The  essentials  for  germination 
are  warmth,   air  and  moisture.    There  can  be  no  growth 


PLANTING  THE  SEED  25 

below  the  freezing  point,  and  most  seeds  germinate  very 
slowly,  if  at  all,  below  40°  Fahrenheit.  The  "optimum" 
temperature,  or  that  at  which  seeds  germinate  best,  varies 
with  different  kinds  of  seeds,  but  the  range  is  comparatively 
narrow  for  any  one  kind.  The  optimum  temperature  for 
most  of  the  small  grains  is  around  80°  Fahrenheit,  though 
germination  begins  at  about  40°.  Cotton  and  corn  grow 
best  around  95°,  and  cotton  will  not  germinate  at  all  much 
below  55°.  Air  is  necessary  for  germination;  for  oxygen, 
which  is  an  important  constituent  of  air,  is  needed  for  certain 
chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  plant  food  stored 
in  the  seed.  Moisture  is  also  needed,  for  these  changes 
take  place  only  when  water  is  present;  it  also  furnishes  a 
medium  by  which  the  food  supply  is  carried  to  all  parts  of 
the  young  plant.  Plant  food  from  outside  sources  is  not 
necessary  for  germination,  nor  is  light.  These  are  required 
for  continued  growth,  but  germination  will  take  place  with- 
out them.  (See  laboratory  exercises  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter.)  When  planted  in  the  soil,  the  radicle  naturally 
goes  down,  while  the  plumule  pushes  up  to  the  light,  no 
matter  in  what  position  the  seed  is  planted. 

22.  Planting  the  Seed.  To  apply  these  facts  in  a  practi- 
cal way,  we  can  readily  see  that  it  is  useless  to  plant  most 
seeds  till  the  soil  and  the  air  are  warm,  though  such  plants 
as  oats  and  wheat  grow  best  at  fairly  cool  temperatures. 
For  this  reason,  they  can  be  sown  much  earlier  than  cotton 
or  corn  can  be  planted.  The  soil  should  be  fine  and  mellow, 
and  the  seed  should  not  be  covered  too  deeply,  otherwise  the 
necessary  supply  of  air  will  be  shut  off  and  the  supply  of 
plant  food  in  the  seed  will  not  be  sufficient  to  enable  the 
young  plant  to  reach  the  surface.  A  soil  that  is  cloddy  or 
crusted  is  unfavorable  for  germination,  as  it  is  more  diffi- 
cult for  the  tender  shoots  to  force  their  way  through  it. 


26 


FIELD  CROPS 


The  depth  of  covering  and  the  fineness  of  the  soil  desirable 
for  best  results  depend  largely  on  the  size  of  the  seed  and  the 
consequent  store  of  plant  food  it  contains.  Seed  must  be 
planted  deep  enough  so  that  it  does  not  dry  out  after  germi- 
nation starts,  yet  not  so  deep  that  the  plantlet  will  have 
difficulty  in  reaching  the  surface.  Such  coarse  seeds  as  corn 
and  peas  should  be 
planted  deeper  than 
clover  and  grass  seed; 
less  care  is  also  re- 
quired in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  seed  bed. 
Very  fine  seeds,  like 
tobacco,  may  best  be 
sown  by  sprinkling 
them  on  the  surface  of 
a  very  fine  seed  bed 
and  pressing  the  seeds 
into  the  earth  with  a 
board. 

Too  much  water  is 
undesirable,  for  it  ex- 
cludes the  air  from  the 
soil.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  dry  soil  does 
not  contain  moisture 
enough  so  that  the 

seed  can  take  it  up.    The  right  kind  of  seed  bed  is  a  fine, 
moist,  mellow  one;  one  which  does  not  dry  out  readily  and 
yet  allows  plenty  of  air  to  reach  the  sprouting  seeds. 
WHAT  THE  LEAVES  DO 

23.  Assimilation.    The  leaves  are  the  laboratory  or  the 
work  room  of  the  plant.     Three  important  processes  are 


Fig.  0.  A  poorly  drained  field.  Good 
drainage,  permitting  the  air  to  penetrate 
the  soil,  is  an  essential  condition  for  the 
germination  of  seed  and  the  growth  of 
plants. 


TRANS  LOCATION  27 

carried  on  in  this  work  room.  These  are  assimilation, 
respiration,  and  transpiration.  By  assimilation,  the  tissues 
of  the  plant  are  built  up.  The  carbon  dioxid  of  the  air 
is  taken  in  through  the  leaf  membranes  and  combined  with 
water  to  make  starch.  This  process  takes  place  only  in  the 
presence  of  sunlight  and  only  in  the  green  parts  of  the  plant. 
The  green  coloring  matter  (chlorophyll)  is  of  importance  to 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  as  it  absorbs  the  rays  of  light;  these 
light  rays  have  the  power  to  split  up  carbon  dioxid  into  its 
parts,  carbon  and  oxygen,  so  that  the  plant  can  utilize  the 
carbon  and  set  free  the  oxygen.  This  process  wholly  ceases 
in  darkness,  and  proceeds  much  more  slowly  on  dark  days  or 
in  shady  locations  than  in  full  sunlight.  This  explains  why 
most  plants  grow  better  in  the  open  than  in  shade.  The 
taking  up  of  carbon  dioxid  and  giving  off  of  oxygen  also 
accounts  in  a  measure  for  the  purer  air  of  country  districts 
where  trees  and  growing  things  abound.  The  percentage  of 
carbon  dioxid  in  the  air  in  a  crowded  city  is  often  double 
what  it  is  in  the  country. 

24.  Translocation.  If  the  leaves  made  starch  continually 
during  the  daylight  hours  and  this  starch  remained  where 
it  was  manufactured,  they  would  soon  become  thick  and 
bulky  and  their  stems  would  be  unable  to  support  them. 
As  in  most  good  factories,  however,  a  means  is  provided  of 
taking  the  manufactured  product  and  carrying  it  to  other 
parts  of  the  plant.  This  is  a  part  of  the  process  of  assimi- 
lation, and  is  called  translocation;  it  takes  place  during  the 
hours  of  darkness.  Starch  itself  is  not  directly  soluble  in 
water,  but  the  leaf  cells  contain  substances  called  enzymes, 
which  change  the  starch  to  sugar,  and,  as  every  one  knows, 
sugar  is  readily  soluble.  The  sugar  is  then  taken  up  in  the 
sap  and  carried  to  the  stem  or  seeds  or  roots,  where  it  is 
stored. 


28  FIELD  CROPS 

Many  plants  which  live  from  year  to  year  store  large 
quantities  of  food  in  their  roots  over  winter  and  are  thus 
able  to  start  into  strong  growth  very  early  the  following 
spring.  If  no  leaves  are  produced,  no  starch  can  be  made 
and  hence  none  can  be  stored  in  the  roots.  This  supplies 
us  with  an  excellent  method  of  fighting  weeds  like  quack 
grass  and  Canada  thistles,  which  are  serious  weed  pests 
largely  because  of  the  food  they  store  and  the  resulting  vigor 
of  their  growth.  If  these  plants  are  prevented  from  reach- 
ing the  light  by  continuous  cultivation,  they  will  be  unable 
to  store  additional  food,  while  each  attempt  at  growth 
reduces  the  supply  in  the  roots;  eventually  this  will  become 
exhausted  and  the  plant  will  die.  We  can  readily  see  that 
a  plant  must  be  well  supplied  with  leaves  in  order  to  produce 
a  good  crop  of  seed  or  fruit,  for  the  leaves  furnish  the  starch 
from  which  a  large  part  of  the  matter  in  these  seeds  and 
fruits  is  made.  If  the  leaves  are  destroyed  by  insects  or 
disease  or  in  any  other  manner,  the  production  of  seed  is 
naturally  lessened. 

25.  Respiration.  The  process  of  respiration  is  in  large 
measure  exactly  the  opposite  of  assimilation.  It  is  con- 
stantly taking  place  in  all  parts  of  the  plant,  just  as  animals 
must  breathe  continually  to  live.  By  this  process,  a  portion 
of  the  carbon  of  the  plant  is  oxidized  or  changed  back  to 
carbon  dioxid,  but  this  change  is  much  less  rapid  than  the 
formation  of  starch  during  the  day  by  the  leaves,  else  there 
could  be  no  growth  or  increase  in  weight  by  the  plant. 
Plants  are  giving  off  carbon  dioxid  constantly,  but  the  volume 
given  off  during  the  day  is  much  less  than  that  taken  up,  so 
that  the  air  is  purified.  At  night,  no  carbon  dioxid  is  taken 
up,  while  the  process  of  respiration  continues  to  give  it  off. 
For  this  reason,  the  air  is  purer  at  the  close  of  a  sunshiny 


TRANSPIRATION  29 

summer  day  than  it  is  the  following  morning.  For  this 
reason,  also,  growing  plants  are  not  desirable  in  a  sleeping 
room  at  night,  though  they  help  to  purify  the  air  in  the  house 
during  the  day. 

26.  Transpiration.  The  third  important  work  of  the 
leaves  is  the  giving  off  of  water,  or  transpiration.  On  the 
green,  growing  portions  of  the  plant,  but  more  particularly 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  are  minute  pores,  or  stomata. 
It  is  through  these  pores  that  the  plant  takes  in  carbon  dioxid 
and  gives  off  oxygen  in  the  assimilation  process  and  also 
gives  off  carbon  dioxid  in  the  respiration  process.  These 
pores  are  ordinarily  open  so  that  water  passes  from  them 
freely  in  the  form  of  vapor.  When  the  supply  of  moisture 
which  can  be  obtained  from  the  roots  decreases,  or  the  air 
conditions  are  such  that  water  is  drawn  from  the  plant  more 
rapidly  than  it  can  be  supplied  by  the  roots,  these  stomata 
gradually  close,  thus  checking  transpiration  and  tending  to 
maintain  the  proper  quantity  of  water  in  the  leaves  and 
tissues  of  the  plant.  Some  plants  possess  the  power  of 
retaining  their  water  content  to  a  marked  degree  and  are 
able  to  live  with  a  very  small  water  supply.  Cacti  and  other 
desert  plants  have  this  characteristic;  the  sorghums  are 
among  the  most  drouth-resistant  of  cultivated  crops. 

The  quantity  of  water  transpired  by  plants  during  their 
period  of  growth  is  enormous.  It  is  estimated  that  corn 
gives  off  270  pounds  of  water  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter 
which  is  produced,  while  nearly  twice  this  quantity  is  tran- 
spired by  oats  in  the  making  of  a  pound  of  dry  matter. 
The  quantity  of  water  transpired  varies  with  the  kind  of 
plant  and  the  climatic  conditions;  where  evaporation  is  very 
rapid,  the  quantity  of  water  required  by  plants  is  greatly 
increased. 


30  FIELD  CROP& 

THE  ROOTS  AND  THEIR  USES 

27.  What  the  Root  Is.  The  root  is  the  portion  of  the 
plant  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  by  which  the 
plant  maintains  its  position.  The  roots  hold  firmly  to  the 
soil  and  prevent  the  plant  from  being  blown  from  place  to 
place.  Some  plants,  like  clover  and  alfalfa,  have  taproots 


Fig.  7.     Roots  of  young  pat   plants.    Notice   the   abundance  of  root 
hairs;  also  the  growing  tips,  which  push  through  the  soil. 

which  extend  straight  down  into  the  soil,  though  they  may 
be  changed  somewhat  in  direction  by  obstacles  or  by  sup- 
plies of  air,  water,  or  plant  food.  From  these  taproots, 
branches  are  sent  out  which  spread  through  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  soil.  Other  plants,  like  wheat  and  corn,  send 
out  several  fibrous  roots  with  many  branches  which  extend 


THE  NEEDS  OF  PLANT  ROOTS  31 

into  the  soil  in  all  directions.  Roots  are  of  many  kinds 
and  shapes,  from  the  fibrous  ones  of  the  grasses  to  the  long, 
slender  taproot  of  alfalfa  and  the  heavy,  thickened  root  of 
the  mangel  and  sugar  beet. 

28.  How  the  Root  Grows.    All  roots  are  alike  in  that  they 
end  in  a  rather  hard,  pointed  portion  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long  called  the  ropt  cap.     It  is  by  means  of  this  root  cap 
that  the  young,  tender  root  forces  its  way  between  the  soil 
particles.    The  lengthening  of  the  root  takes  place  just  back 
of  the  root  cap  rather  than  along  the  entire  length,  so  that 
the  root  is  enabled  to  find  its  way  around  obstacles,  such  as 
pebbles  and  other  impervious  objects  in  the  soil.     It  is 
evident  that  a  fine,  mellow  soil  is  important  for  the  free 
growth  of  roots,  as  it  is  more  easily  penetrated  by  them. 
Just  back  of  the  root  cap  are  small  rootlets  or  root  hairs, 
which  are  the  feeding  roots  of  the  plant.     These  root  hairs 
come  into  very  close  contact  with  the  soil  particles,  as  will 
be  found  when  a  plant  is  dug  up  and  the  earth  is  washed  from 
the  roots  carefully.     It  will  be  very  difficult  to  remove  all 
the  fine  particles  of  soil  from  these  root  hairs,  so  closely  do 
they  cling.    These  root  hairs  will  be  found  only  along  a  few 
inches  of  the  growing  portion  of  the  root  just  behind  the  root 
cap. 

29.  Roots  Take  in  Water.     It  has  already  been  stated 
that  the  leaves  of  plants  give  off  water  by  transpiration. 
Naturally,  there  must  be  some  source  of  supply  from  which 
this  water  is  drawn  and  some  means  of  conveying  it  to  the 
leaves.    The  source  of  supply  is  the  moisture  in  the  soil; 
it  is  taken  in  through  the  roots,  whence  it  passes  through  the 
stem  to  the  leaves.     The  inner  bark  of  the  root  and  the  stem 
is  made  up  largely  of  hollow  cells  placed  end  to  end,  which 
make  a  ready  means  of  passage  for  this  water,  or  sap,  as  it  is 
ordinarily  called  after  it  is  taken  in  by  the  plant.     A  shortage 


32  FIELD  CROPS 

in  the  supply  of  soil  moisture  is  soon  evident  from  the  wilting 
which  takes  place  when  water  is  transpired  more  rapidly 
than  it  can  be  taken  in  by  the  roots.  Plants  can  not  draw 
all  the  water  from  the  soil;  clay  soils  will  retain  more  than 
sandy  soils.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  reduction  of  the  root  sur- 
face lessens  the  supply  of  water  which  the  plant  can  obtain, 
hence  cultivating  corn  so  deep  that  some  of  the  roots  are  cut 
causes  the  plants  to  wilt  and  checks  their  growth.  The 
gardener  removes  part  of  the  leaves  from  his  plants  and 
prunes  his  trees  in  transplanting  them  so  as  to  reduce  trans- 
piration and  lessen  the  danger  from  wilting,  for  he  knows 
that  part  of  the  roots  have  been  broken  off  and  those  that 
remain  can  not  supply  enough  water  for  the  full  leaf  surface. 
30.  Roots  Require  Air.  As  with  all  other  living  parts  of 
the  plant,  the  roots  are  constantly  taking  in  oxygen  and  giv- 
ing off  carbon  dioxid;  that  is,  the  process  of  respiration  is  in 
progress.  Consequently,  roots  require  air.  Most  plants 
can  not  grow  in  a  soil  that  is  so  filled  with  moisture  that  air 
is  largely  excluded,  though  a  few  plants  have  become  adapted 
to  this  condition.  Plants  do  not  root  deeply  when  there  is  an 
over-supply  of  moisture,  for  it  is  not  necessary  for  them  to 
extend  their  roots  to  obtain  water,  nor  is  there  sufficient  air  in 
the  soil  for  the  healthy  growth  of  roots.  Consequently, 
plants  in  wet  locations  often  suffer  first  when  dry  weather 
comes,  for  their  root  systems  are  so  small  and  so  shallow 
that  they  are  unable  to  obtain  enough  water.  For  the  same 
reason,  plants  are  more  likely  to  be  damaged  by  a  drouth 
which  follows  a  wet  spring  than  by  one  succeeding  a  moder- 
ately dry  one.  Enough  water,  but  not  too  much,  is  essential 
for  the  best  growth  of  plants.  Good  drainage  helps  by  tak- 
ing off  the  surplus  water  and  allowing  air  to  penetrate,  thus 
inducing  deeper  rooting. 


WHAT  PLANT  FOOD  18  33 

31.  Roots   Take   in   Plant  Food.    When  the   chemist 
analyzes  a  plant,  he  finds  many  things  besides  the  carbon 
which  is  taken  from  the  air  and  the  water  with  which  it  is 
combined  to  make  starch.     He  finds  compounds  of  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,    potassium,    calcium,    and    other    substances. 
Now  these  elements,  with  the  exception  of  nitrogen,  are  not 
to  be  found  in  the  air  in  appreciable  quantities,  and  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  is  not  in  a  form  in  which  most  plants  can 
use  it.     Phosphorus  and  potassium  and  the  other  things  are 
to  be  found  in  the  soil,  for  soil  is  simply  decayed  or  disinte- 
grated rock,  and  these  elements  are  a  part  of  all  rocks.     The 
surface  soil  which  is  penetrated  by  the  roots  also  contains  de- 
caying organic  matter,  and  it  is  from  this  that  plants  obtain 
their  supply  of  nitrogen.    Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
and  the  other  elements  can  not  be  taken  in  by  the  roots  of 
plants  and  pass  through  their  tissues  in  a  solid  state,  hence 
they  must  be  in  a  soluble  form  so  that  they  can  be  carried  by 
the  water  which  is  drawn  in  by  the  roots.    Most  of  the  com- 
pounds of  these  elements  are  not  soluble  in  pure  water,  but 
the  water  in  the  soil  contains  some  carbon  dioxid  given  off 
by  the  roots,  and  this  carbon  dioxid  is  an  efficient  aid  in 
dissolving  the  material  in  the  soil  particles.     These  com- 
pounds of  potassium,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  etc.,  are  known 
as  plant  food. 

ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  AND  THEIR  USES 

32.  Nitrogen.     In  order  to  understand  the  nature  and 
uses  of  the  different  elements  of  plant  food,  we  must  know 
something  of  chemistry  and  of  soils,  hence  only  the  most 
elementary  statements  regarding  them  will  be  made  here, 
and  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  explain  the  functions  or 
forms  of  these  elements.     Nitrogen,  though  present  in  the 
air,  can  not  be  used  by  plants  in  the  form  in  which  it  occurs 

I 


34 


FIELD  CROPS 


No  treatment 

2590  Ibs.  hay  per  acre 


Fig.  8. 


640  Ibs.  nitrate  soda  320  Ibs.  nitrate  soda 

320  Ibs.  acid  phosphate  320  Ibs.  acid  phosphate 

80  Ibs.  muriate  potash  80  Ibs.  muriate  potash 

7590  Ibs.  hay  per  acre  7110  Ibs.  hay  per  acre 

Plenty  of  nitrogen  is  essential  to  good  hay  crops. 


20  tons  manure  10  tons  manure  No  treatment 

7420  Ibs.  hay  per  acre         4350  Ibs.  hay  per  acre         2230  Ibs.  hay  per  acre 
Fig.  9.     Grass  crops  make  better  use  of  barnyard  manure 
than  does  any  other  crop. 


ELEMENTS   OF  PLANT  FOOD  35 

there.  Plants  can  utilize  " combined"  nitrogen  only;  that 
is,  nitrogen  combined  with  some  other  element  or  elements. 
The  bacteria  which  live  on  the  roots  of  certain  plants  have 
the  power  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  changing  it 
into  a  form  in  which  it  is  available  for  the  use  of  the  plants 
on  which  these  bacteria  live.  When  the  roots  or  any  portion 
of  such  plants  decay  in  the  soil,  the  nitrogen  in  them  is  made 
soluble,  and  a  portion  of  it  becomes  available  for  any  plants 
that  may  subsequently  grow  on  the  soil.  The  air  is  there- 
fore one  great  source  of  nitrogen.  Another  is  decaying  vege- 
table matter  in  the  soil,  which  is  acted  upon  by  other  bac- 
teria and  changed  to  the  nitrate  form,  in  which  plants  can 
use  it.  These  bacteria  are  able  to  work  only  in  warm,  moist 
soil  which  contains  plenty  of  air;  they  thus  supply  another 
argument  for  good  tillage  and  drainage. 

33.  Phosphorus.    Phosphorus  is   a  part  of  nearly  all 
rocks  from  which  soil  is  formed,  though  the  quantity  in  many 
soils  is  so  small  that  it  is  soon  reduced  below  the  needs  of 
crops.    In  soils  which  are  sour  or  acid,  the  supply  of  phos- 
phorus is  largely  in  an  insoluble  form  so  that  it  can  not  be 
used  by  plants.    Ordinarily  this  condition  can  be  corrected 
by  applying  lime,  but  on  soils  which  are  very  acid,  such  as 
marshes  and  other  low,  wet  lands  are  likely  to  be,  the  appli- 
cation of  lime  is  not  practical  and  it  is  necessary  to  supply 
phosphorus  in  an  available  form  in  order  to  grow  crops. 
Phosphorus  is  obtained  from  deposits  in  the  soil  in  certain 
sections  and  from  stock  yards  where  large  numbers  of  ani- 
mals are  slaughtered,  as  bones  are  very  rich  in  this  element. 
The  ordinary  forms  of  phosphate  fertilizers  are  raw  bone 
meal,  raw  rock  phosphate,  and  acid  phosphate. 

34.  Potassium.    Potassium  or  potash,  the  latter  the  form 
of  potassium  to  which  reference  is  usually  made,  is  the  third 
great  element  of  plant  food.    Like  phosphorus,  it  is  present 


36  FIELD  CROPS 

to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  soils,  but  sandy  soils  contain 
less  of  it  than  clay  and  loam  soils,  while  the  supply  in  peat 
and  muck  is  comparatively  small.  A  very  large  part  of  the 
potassium  in  the  soil  is  in  a  form  which  is  not  available  for 
the  use  of  plants  and,  as  it  becomes  available  very  slowly, 
it  occasionally  is  not  present  in  sufficient  quantity  for  plant 
growth.  It  is  much  less  likely  to  be  lacking  than  phosphorus 
or  nitrogen,  however.  The  supply  of  potassium  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers  is  obtained  from  mines,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  in  Germany.  Wood  ashes  are  also  used  to 
supply  potassium  to  the  soil. 

35.  Other  Elements.    Other  elements  which  are  neces- 
sary to  plant  growth,  but  which  are  usually  present  in  all 
soils  in  sufficient  quantity  so  that  no  attention  need  be  paid 
to  them,  are  calcium,  iron,  magnesium,  and  sulphur.     Silicon, 
chlorin,  and  sodium  are  also  usually  present  in  plants,  but 
they  do  not  appear  to  be  necessary  for  growth.     Calcium 
contained  in  lime  corrects  the  soil  acidity,  which  is  harmful 
to  most  plants;  it  is  also  essential  to  leaf  growth.    Lime  is 
also  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  bacteria  which 
change  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  that  in  decaying  vegetable 
matter  into  forms  which  can  be  used  by  plants.    Iron  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  green  coloring  matter  of  plants  (chloro- 
phyll), without  which  carbon  dioxid  can  not  be  broken  up 
and  starch  manufactured.     Lime  is  the  only  one  of  these 
elements  which  is  at  all  likely  to  become  depleted;  it  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  supply  it  on  wet  or  acid  soils. 

36.  Sources  of  Plant  Food.    The  rocks  from  which  the 
soil  is  made  are  the  principal  source  of  all  the  mineral  ele- 
ments of  plant  food.    Decaying  vegetable  matter  is  also  an 
important  source  of  all  the  elements  of  plant  food,  for  all  are 
taken  up  by  plants  and  naturally  they  are  returned  to  the 
soil  when  these  plants  decay.     The  two  most  important 


IMPORTANCE  OF  HUMUS  37 

sources  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  are  the  plants  them- 
selves, either  the  roots  and  stubble  which  are  left  when  the 
crop  is  harvested  or  the  entire  plant  which  is  turned  under  as 
green  manure,  and  barnyard  manure.  Barnyard  or  stable 
manure  is  made  up  of  bedding  and  parts  of  plants  which 
are  not  eaten  by  animals  and  also  of  the  material  in  the  food 
they  consume  which  they  are  unable  to  digest  and  assimi- 
late, so  that  it  is  all  vegetable  matter.  When  this  matter  is 
incorporated  in  the  soil,  it  is  acted  upon  by  bacteria  and 
molds  and  reduced  to  forms  in  which  it  can  again  be  used  by 
plants.  Another  important  source  of  plant  food  and  one 
which  is  largely  used  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  states  is 
commercial  fertilizers.  These  are  composed  mostly  of 
refuse  animal  matter  from  stock  yards  and  of  mineral 
matter  which  is  taken  from  certain  soil  deposits  containing 
the  desired  elements. 

37.  Humus.  The  partially  decayed  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil  is  usually  called  humus.  The  term  humus,  however, 
as  commonly  used,  has  so  many  different  meanings  that  it  is 
confusing.  On  this  account  the  term  vegetable  matter  is 
used  because  it  includes  the  fresh  supplies  of  vegetable 
matter  such  as  roots,  stems  and  manure  as  well  as  that  which 
has  been  partially  decayed.  The  properties  usually  credited 
to  humus  are  found  also  in  the  fresher  forms  of  vegetable 
matter.  In  addition  to  supplying  a  source  of  plant  food,  it 
has  considerable  effect  on  crop  growth  in  other  ways.  Soils 
which  contain  plenty  of  vegetable  matter  are  easier  to  work 
than  those  which  are  lacking  in  it,  for  they  hold  moisture 
better  and  are  less  likely  to  bake  and  become  cloddy.  The 
acid  developed  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter 
helps  to  dissolve  some  of  the  mineral  matter  in  the  soil  and 
make  it  available  for  plants.  The  dark  color  of  soils  is  due 
largely  to  the  presence  of  an  abundance  of  humus.  As  dark 


38  FIELD  CROPS 

colors  absorb  the  sun's  rays  more  completely  than  light 
ones,  dark  soils  or  those  rich  in  humus  are  warmer  than  those 
which  are  lacking  in  it.  It  is  evident  that  it  is  important 
to  maintain  a  plentiful  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

38.  Content  of  the  Various  Elements  at  Different  Stages. 
Different  plants  draw  on  the  supply  of  the  various  elements 
of  plant  food  in  different  proportions.     They  also  vary  in 
their  composition  and  in  their  draft  on  the  soil  at  different 
stages  of  growth.    The  quantity  of  potash,  for  instance,  in 
a  crop  of  wheat  increases  up  to  the  time  when  the  crop  is 
fully  headed,  after  which  it  decreases  till  at  harvest  nearly 
half  the  potash  the  plant  contained  has  been  lost.    This 
potash  is  washed  out  by  rains  and  dews  or  it  is  returned  to 
the  soil  by  way  of  the  roots.    The  greatest  quantity  of  nitro- 
gen is  also  to  be  found  in  the  cereals  and  grasses  at  about  the 
time  when  the  plants  are  in  blossom;  later  the  nitrogen  con- 
tent decreases.    The  quantity  of  phosphorus  increases  as 
long  as  growth  continues  and  does  not  noticeably  decrease 
at  maturity.    With  other  crops  which  do  not  dry  out  when 
ripe,  as  the  potato,  there  is  no  loss  of  any  of  the  elements 
when  the  plant  is  mature.    While   there  is  little  definite 
information  on  the  use  which  is  made  of  the  different  ele- 
ments at  the  different  stages  of  growth,  it  can  safely  be  said 
that  the  composition  of  the  mature  plant  does  not  neces- 
sarily show  the  quantity  of  food  material  which  has  been 
used  during  growth. 

39.  When  the  Different  Elements  Are  Needed.    Plants 
differ  in  the  time  at  which  they  need  the  various  elements  of 
plant  food  just  as  they  differ  in  the  proportion  of  these  ele- 
ments which  they  utilize.     In  general,  nitrogen  is  most 
largely  used  in  vegetative  growth  (the  production  of  leaves 
and  stems)  and  is  drawn  on  more  heavily  in  the  earlier 
stages   of   growth   than   toward   maturity.     Forage   crops 


SUMMARY  OF  PLANT  NEEDS  39 

require  a  specially  liberal  supply  of  nitrogen.  Phosphorus, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  an  important  constituent  of  seeds  and 
fruits,  and  is  used  more  largely  as  the  plant  matures.  All 
the  elements,  however,  are  used  more  or  less  during  the 
growth  of  the  plant. 

40.  Result  if  an  Element  Is  Lacking.    If  any  one  of  the 
important  elements  is  lacking,  continued  healthy  growth  is 
not  possible.    If  nitrogen  is  wanting,  the  growth  will  be 
slow  and  stunted  and  the  plants  will  be  yellow  and  sickly 
in  appearance.    A  shortage  in  the  supply  of  potash  often 
produces  weak,  flabby  plants  which  are  likely  to  lodge. 
Calcium  seems  to  be  necessary  for  the  growth  of  leaves,  and 
iron  for  the  development  of  the  green  coloring  matter. 
Phosphorus  is  more  necessary  for  the  production  of  seed  than 
for  the  growth  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  and  plants  will  make 
a  larger  growth  if  this  element  is  lacking  than  if  any  other  is 
not  supplied.    Potash  apparently  has  more  or  less  influence 
on  the  formation  of  starch.     Potash  is  found  most  largely  in 
the  stems  and  leaves,  and  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  in  the 
seeds  of  most  plants. 

41.  Necessities  for  the  Growth  of  Plants.    To  sum- 
marize the  preceding  paragraphs,  plants  require  air,  sunlight, 
water,  heat,  and  plant  food  in  order  to  grow.    Air  is  neces- 
sary to  supply  carbon  for  the  making  of  starch  and  for  the 
respiration  of  plants.    Sunlight  is  required  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  starch  and  other  compounds,  for  plants  can  break 
carbon  dioxid  into  its  parts  only  in  the  presence  of  sun- 
light.   Water  is  needed  to  combine  with  the  carbon  to  make 
starch,  to  act  as  a  carrier  of  plant  food,  to  evaporate  from  the 
leaf  surfaces  and  keep  the  plant  from  getting  too  warm,  and 
to  give  rigidity  to  the  cells  of  the  plant.     Plant  food  is 
required  to  make  the  different  compounds  which  compose  the 
plant.    Soil  is  not  necessary  for  the  growth  of  a  plant,  for 


40 


FIELD  CROPS 


SEED  PRODUCTION  41 

many  plants  can  be  brought  to  maturity  in  water  if  their 
positions  are  constant  and  the  necessary  plant  food  is  sup- 
plied. In  the  practical  growth  of  crops,  however,  soil  is  a 
necessity. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEED 

42.  Reason  for  Seed  Production.    It  is  the  function  of 
nearly  all  plants  to  produce  seed  so  as  to  perpetuate  their 
kind.     Very  frequently,  man  has  taken  advantage  of  this 
circumstance  and  has  used  the  seed  for  his  own  purposes. 
It  is  the  seed  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  other  grains  which 
is  used  as  food  by  man;  he  also  uses  the  seeds,  stalks, leaves, 
and  roots  of  many  plants  to  feed  to  domestic  animals.     He 
uses  the  lint,  or  fiber,  which  is  attached  to  the  seed  of  cotton; 
a  large  variety  of  products  are  made  from  the  seed  itself. 
Nearly  all  our  cultivated  crops  must  be  grown  from  the  seed 
every  year.     Hence  the  subject  of  seed  production  is  one 
which  is  of  importance  to  the  farmer  and  the  student  of 
field  crops. 

43.  Reproductive  Organs.    The  flowers  are  the  repro- 
ductive organs  of  the  plant.     They  consist  usually  of  a  pro- 
tective green  covering,  the  calyx;  the  corolla,  a  colored  por- 
tion, the  main  function  of  which  is  to  attract  insects  that 
are  of  assistance  in  pollination;  a  number  of  stamens;  and  one 
or  more  pistils.    The  stamens  and  pistil  are  the  essential 
parts  for  the  production  of  seed.     The  stamen  consists  of  a 
slender  stem,  the  filament,  and  an  enlarged  upper  portion, 
the  anther;  the  anther  contains  a  fine  dust,  usually  yellow  in 
color,  the  pollen.     The  lower  portion  of  the  pistil  is  the  ovary, 
which  later  develops  into  the  fruit  or  seeds;  the  upper  por- 
tion, usually  somewhat  enlarged,  is  the  stigma;  connecting 
these  two  is  the  more  or  less  elongated  central  portion,  the 
style.     The  style  contains  a  slender  tube  through  which  the 


42  FIELD  CROPS 

pollen  grain  grows  down  from  the  stigma  to  the  ovary  to 
fertilize  the  ovule  or  young  seed.  On  most  plants,  both 
stamens  and  pistils  are  on  the  same  plant  and  are  parts  of 
the  same  flower.  In  corn,  the  stamens  are  borne  in  the  tas- 
sel while  the  pistillate  flowers  are  in  the  ear,  the  silks  being 
the  styles  and  stigmas  of  the  pistils  and  the  young  kernels 
the  ovaries.  In  some  flowers,  as  in  the  grasses,  the  calyx 
and  corolla  are  replaced  by  scales  or  are  wanting.  A  typical 
flower  in  which  all  the  parts  are  readily  seen  is  that  of  flax. 

44.  Fertilization.    When  the  ovules  are  ready  for  ferti- 
lization, the  stigma  becomes  moist  and  sticky  so  that  it 
catches  and  holds  the  pollen  grains  that  come  in  contact 
with  it.    The  anthers  open  and  shed  their  pollen;  it  may  fall 
directly  upon  the  moist  stigmas,  or  be  carried  there  by  the 
wind,  by  insects,  or  by  other  agents.     In  any  case,  a  pollen 
grain  germinates  and  grows  down  the  slende/  tube  of  the 
pistil  from  the  stigma  to  the  ovary,  where  it  fertilizes  the 
ovule.    The  ovule  then  develops  and  eventually  matures 
into  a  seed;  if  it  is  not  fertilized  it  withers  away.    The 
characters  of  the  male  and  female  plants  are  thus  fused  in 
the  embryo  of  the  seed.     The  ovary  may  contain  one,  several, 
or  many  seeds.     In  the  grains  and  grasses,  it  contains  one; 
in  flax,  several,  usually  five,  seeds  are  produced;  in  some 
weeds,  notably  purslane,  or  "pussly,"  the  number  of  seeds 
produced  by  one  flower  runs  into  the  hundreds.    The  grains 
of  corn  each  represent  a  flower,  of  which  the  silk  is  the  pistil ; 
the  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  compact  spike  on  the  cob, 
which  is  the  racnis. 

45.  Close  and  Open  Fertilization.    When  a  flower  is  so 
constructed  that  it  is  normally  fertilized  by  its  own  pollen, 
it  is  said  to  be  close-fertilized.     Such  are  the  flowers  of  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  and  many  of  the  grasses,  many  of  which  are 
fertilized,  before  the  flowers  open.     Different  varieties  of 


IMPROVEMENTS  OF  PLANTS  43 

these  plants  may  be  grown  side  by  side  without  danger  of 
mixing.  An  open-fertilized  flower  is  one  that  may  be  ferti- 
lized by  pollen  from  another  flower  either  on  the  same  plant 
or  on  a  different  one.  In  many  plants,  it  may  be  fertilized 
either  by  its  own  pollen  or  by  that  from  some  other  flower; 
in  some,  it  must  be  fertilized  by  pollen  from  another  flower, 
and  the  results  are  better  if  this  flower  is  on  another  plant. 
In  corn,  open  pollination  is  assured,  because  the  pistillate 
and  staminate  flowers  are  on  different  parts  of  the  plant,  and 
the  pollen  is  not  shed  till  several  days  after  the  ovules  on  that 
stalk  are  ready  for  fertilization,  so  that  corn  growing  in  a 
field  is  almost  certain  to  be  cross-fertilized.  As  corn  pollen 
is  carried  for  some  distance  by  the  wind,  two  varieties  of  corn 
planted  near  together  are  almost  certain  to  mix  if  they 
"silk"  at  about  the  same  time. 

46.  Crosses  and  Hybrids.    A  cross  is  produced  by  the 
union  of  two  varieties;  if  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  corn  is  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Learning  or  Boone  County  White  or  any  other 
variety,  the  result  is  a  cross.     In  the  original  meaning  of  the 
word,  a  hybrid  was  the  product  of  the  union  of  two  species, 
as  wheat  and  rye,  but  the  term  is  now  commonly  used  in  the 
sense  of  a  cross  between  varieties  of  the  same  species.     True 
hybrids  are  seldom  fertile;  that  is,  they  will  not  produce 
seed.    Thus  in  the  case  just  mentioned,  numerous  hybrids 
of  wheat  and  rye  have  been  produced,  but  in  very  few  cases 
have  these  hybrids  produced  seed  which  would  germinate. 
The  process  of  cross-fertilization  by  artificial  means  is  fre- 
quently used  for  the  production  of  new  varieties.     Con- 
siderable care,  time,  and  selection  must  be  devoted  to  crosses 
in  order  to  get  them  to  "come  true,"  i.  e.,  to  produce  uni- 
formly the  type  of  plant  which  is  desired. 

47.  Improvement  by  Selection.    The  principle  that  like 
produces  like  is  used  by  plant  breeders  in  the  improvement 


44  FIELD  'CROPS 

of  varieties.  If  seed  is  continually  saved  from  the  best  indi- 
viduals in  a  field  of  wheat  or  other  close-fertilized  plant,  a 
very  noticeable  improvement  can  be  effected  in  a  few  years. 
In  the  same  way,  if  the  best  individuals  of  open-fertilized 
plants  are  saved  for  seed,  improvement  will  result,  but  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  pollen  from 
inferior  plants.  Thus  an  ear  of  corn  may  appear  to  be 
excellent,  but  some  of  the  kernels  may  have  been  fertilized 
by  pollen  from  inferior  stalks  and  the  plants  they  produce 
will  be  inferior.  A  large  part  of  this  "bad  blood"  may  be 
eliminated  by  going  through  the  field  when  the  plants  are 
in  tassel  but  before  the  pollen  is  shed  and  pulling  out  the 
tassels  of  the  weak  stalks  and  others  that  do  not  show 
promise  of  producing  good  ears.  The  improvement  of 
plants  is  a  very  interesting  line  of  work  and  one  which 
should  receive  the  attention  of  many  more  people  than  now 
devote  their  energies  to  it. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Soak  several  beans  or  peas  in  tepid  water  for  24  hours.    Then 
examine  them,  noting  how  they  have  swelled  and  how  easily  the  outer 
skin  may  be  removed.    Separate  the  halves  and  examine  the  embryo 
which  remains  attached  to  one  of  them.    At  the  same  time  put  a  few 
beans  in  ice  water  and  keep  the  water  below  40  degrees  if  possible, 
but  avoid  actual  freezing.     Note  how  little  the  seeds  have  swelled 
in  comparison  with  the  others.    Also  soak  a  few  beans  for  the  same 
length  of  time  in  tepid  water  containing  a  spoonful  of  common  salt. 
Note  that  they  have  not  swelled  as  did  those  in  warm  water.    Seeds  have 
the  power  of  keeping  out  undesirable  solutions  and  will  not  germinate 
in  soils  containing  any  considerable  quantity  of  salts. 

2.  Plant  several  beans  in  a  small  box  of  good  soil;  plant  kernels 
of  corn  in  a  similar  box.    Keep  the  soil  moist,  but  not  wet.    In  a  few 
days  the  plants  will  appear.     Note  how  the  young  shoot  of  the  bean 
has  pushed  the  halves  of  the  seed  apart  and  forced  them  to  the  surface, 
while  the  kernel  of  corn  remained  below.     Dig  up  one  plant  of  each 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  45 

carefully  and  note  the  difference  in  the  root  system;  also  how  the  young 
corn  plant  is  still  attached  to  the  kernel.  A  few  days  later  note 
that  the  thick  halves  of  the  bean  have  gradually  disappeared;  also  that 
the  corn  kernel  has  decreased  till  little  more  than  a  shell  is  left.  The 
plant  is  drawing  on  its  supply  of  food  stored  in  the  seed.  Soon  the  green 
leaves  will  begin  to  manufacture  food  from  the  air,  while  the  roots  will 
draw  on  the  supply  in  the  soil. 

3.  Plant  beans  in  another  box  or  pot.    As  soon  as  they  appear 
above  ground,  cut  off  parts  of  the  thick  "seed  leaves"  with  a  knife, 
being  careful  not  to  injure  the  young  plant.    Leave  one  or  two  plants 
undisturbed.    Note  that  the  vigor  of  growth  depends  on  the  quantity 
of  plant  food  available,  as  indicated  by  the  size  of  the  portions  which 
were  allowed  to  remain.    Portions  of  the  starchy  upper  part  of  the  corn 
kernel  may  be  cut  away  before  planting  without  injuring  the  germ. 
Cut  several  kernels  in  this  way  and  note  the  effect  on  germination  and 
growth. 

4.  Cut  five  or  six  thicknesses  of  blotting  paper  the  size  of  a  large 
plate,  place  in  the  plate  and  have  another  plate  of  the  same  size  to  turn 
down  over  it.     Make  several  of  these  small  germinators  and  place 
fifty  grains  of  wheat,  oats,  or  barley  between  the  blotting  paper  in  each; 
moisten  the  blotting  paper  in  all  but  one  and  keep  it  moist.     (Several 
thicknesses  of  cloth  may  be  used  instead  of  the  blotting  paper  if  desired.) 
Set  one  of  the  germinators  in  a  cool  place  and  another  where  it  remains 
at  about  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  room,  70  degrees.    Place  the 
dry  germinator  alongside  the  moist  one  in  the  warm  room.    Set  one 
germinator  in  a  warm,  light  place  and  another  in  a  warm,  dark  one. 
Do  not  let  any  of  the  germinators  become  dry  except  the  one  which 
was  started  that  way.     In  five  or  six  days  examine  all  of  them  and  see 
what  has  happened.     Is  moisture  necessary  for  germination?     Is  light? 
Is  heat? 

5.  Plant  several  beans  in  pots  or  small  boxes  of  good  soil;  after  the 
plants  appear  set  one  box  in  a  cool  place,  but  where  it  will  not  freeze; 
put  another  in  a  dark  room  or  closet;  place  the  remainder  in  a  warm, 
sunny  window.    Set  one  of  the  pots  in  the  window  and  let  it  dry  out; 
plunge  another  in  a  pan  of  water  to  the  top.    Keep  the  others  moist 
but  not  wet.    In  a  few  days  compare  the  growth  which  has  been  made. 
Is  light  necessary?    Is  heat?    Moisture?    Do  the  roots  need  ah*? 

6.  If  there  is  sufficient  time,  a  large  number  of  other  exercises  may 
be  worked  out,  showing  that  plants  need  air,  light,  moisture,  plant  food, 


46  FIELD  CROPS 

and  heat;  how  they  utilize  these  different  factors,  and  the  results  if 
any  are  lacking.  Farmers'  Bulletin  408,  School  Lessons  in  Plant 
Production,  may  be  obtained  free  by  any  teacher  and  will  be  very  help- 
ful in  suggesting  useful  exercises  for  the  laboratory.  The  first  four 
chapters  of  A.  D.  Hall's  recent  book,  "The  Feeding  of  Crops  and 
Stock,"  will  be  found  very  readable  and  instructive,  as  well  as  sug- 
gestive of  numerous  methods  of  illustrating  the  germination  of  seeds 
and  the  growth  of  plants. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletin  408,  School  Exercises  in  Plant  Production. 
Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  5  21. 
Hall's  Feeding  of  Crops  and  Stock,  pp.  1-77. 
Johnson's  How  Plants  Grow. 
Johnson's  How  Plants  Feed. 


PART  II— GRAIN  CROPS 


CHAPTER  III 
CORN 

ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION 

48.  Nativity.  Corn,  Zea  mays,  is  a  native  of  America. 
Though  it  is  a  true  grass,  none  of  the  known  native  or  wild 
grasses  resemble  it  very  closely,  and  the  species  from  which 
it  was  developed  has  never  been  determined.  All  that  is 
known  is  that  it  was  cultivated  by  the  Indians  when  America 
was  discovered  by  Columbus.  It  is  generally  agreed  that 
corn  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  Columbus  on  his 
return  from  his  voyage  of  discovery,  and  that  its  growth  in 
Europe  and  Asia  has  spread  from  that  original  importation 
and  from  later  ones  from  this  continent.  Corn  is  reported 
to  have  been  first  grown  by  white  people  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  United  States  in  the  colony  of  Virginia  in  1608. 

The  term  "corn"  is  used  in  Europe  to  designate  any 
kind  of  grain,  as  wheat,  oats,  or  barley,  and  it  was  so  used 
before  the  discovery  of  America.  When  the  cultivation  of 
Indian  corn  or  maize  was  introduced,  the  same  term  was 
applied  to  it.  The  confusion  in  the  meaning  of  the  word 
and  the  consequent  belief  that  corn  was  grown  in  Europe 
before  the  journeys  of  Columbus  to  the  New  World  are 
doubtless  due  to  this  use  of  the  word,  which  is  now  legally 
accepted  as  meaning  maize,  or  Indian  corn.  It  is  unani- 
mously conceded  that  corn  is  a  native  American  plant,  first 
grown  and  used  by  the  Indians  of  this  hemisphere.  Con- 


48  FIELD  CROPS 

elusive  evidence  of  its  nativity  is  indicated  by  its  connection 
with  mythological  and  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Indians 
and  the  discovery  of  ears  of  corn  buried  with  mummies  in 
Peru  and  Mexico. 

49.  Botanical  Characters.  Botanically,  corn  is  a  grass; 
that  is,  it  belongs  to  the  same  family  of  plants  as  timothy, 
wheat,  and  blue  grass.  The  roots  are  fibrous  and  spread 
several  feet  in  the  ground  in  all  directions,  the  extent  vary- 
ing with  the  type  of  soil  and  the  weather  conditions.  After 
the  plant  is  partly  grown,  brace  roots  grow  out  from  one  or 
two,  and  in  some  cases  several,  of  the  lower  joints.  The 
function  of  these  roots  is  simply  to  brace  the  plant,  to  aid  it 
in  withstanding  the  strain  caused  by  the  wind  blowing  it 
about. 

The  stem,  like  that  of  all  of  the  common  grasses,  is  made 
up  of  nodes  and  internodes,  varying  greatly  in  length  in 
different  varieties  and  in  different  seasons.  The  internodes 
are  much  longer  near  the  top  than  near  the  bottom  of  the 
stalk.  The  stem,  which  is  flattened  or  grooved  on  one  side, 
has  a  hard,  fibrous  coat  or  outer  wall  and  a  soft,  spongy 
pith,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  hollow  stems  of  most 
grasses.  The  height  of  the  plant  varies  from  2  to  20  or 
more  feet;  the  usual  height  is  from  5  to  10  feet. 

The  leaves  grow  out  from  the  nodes.  As  in  other  grasses, 
they  clasp  the  stem  in  the  form  of  a  sheath  which  fits  very 
closely.  Where  the  leaf  spreads  out  from  the  stalk,  the 
sheath  clasps  about  it  so  tightly  that  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances water  is  prevented  from  getting  in  between  the 
sheath  and  the  stem.  The  blades  of  the  leaves  vary  in 
breadth  from  2  to  4  inches  and  in  length  from  2  to  4  feet. 
The  leaves  have  the  useful  habit  of  rolling  up  from  the  edges 
when  there  is  a  shortage  of  moisture,  thus  greatly  reducing 
the  transpiration  from  them. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   CORN  49 

The  flowers  of  corn  are  monecious;  that  is,  the  male  and 
female  parts  of  the  flower  are  borne  on  different  parts  of 
the  plant.  The  tassel  bears  the  male  part  and  the  silk  is 
the  visible  part  of  the  female  flower.  As  in  other  plants,  the 
male  flower  produces  the  pollen  which  is  to  pollinate  the 
female  flower.  As  it  is  produced  at  the  top  of  the  stalk,  the 
pollen  easily  falls  by  gravity,  or  more  commonly,  it  is 
blown  from  the  tassel  to  the  stigma  of  the  female  flower. 
Because  of  the  manner  of  pollination  and  because  many 
corn  plants  are  usually  grown  together,  crossing  very  gener- 
ally results;  that  is,  pollen  from  one  plant  fertilizes  the 
ovaries  of  other  plants,  so  that  corn  is  usually  cross  pollinated. 
In  fact,  this  habit  is  so  general  that  a  stalk  growing  by  itself 
seldom,  if  ever,  produces  a  good  ear,  because  of  imperfect 
fertilization  of  the  flowers. 

50.  Mixing  of  Varieties.     The  flowering  habits  of  corn 
make  it  extremely  difficult  to  maintain  pure  varieties,  as 
they  will  mix  for  considerable  distances.     For  this  reason 
it  is  highly  desirable  for  a  community  to  grow  but  one 
variety.     If   adjoining   farms    produce    different    varieties, 
each  is  very  likely  to  be  mixed  with  the  other.     In  favorable 
weather,  the  pollen  grains  may  be  carried  by  the  wind  at 
least  200  rods  if  there  is  no  obstruction  in  the  way.     The  fact 
that  the  prevailing  winds  in  the  corn  belt  are  from  the  south- 
west during  the  season  of  the  year  when  corn  is   blossoming 
is  made  use  of  to  some  extent  by  locating  the  seed  plat 
from  which  seed  for  the  next  year's  crop  is  to  be  selected 
where  the  wind  blows  from  it  to  the  other  corn  fields,  rather 
than  from  the  other  corn  fields  to  it. 

CLASSIFICATION 

51.  Variation.     All  the  varieties  now  so  common  in  every 
section  of  the  country  are  the  result  of  selection  and  breed- 


50 


FIELD  CROPS 


ing  from  the  original  Indian  types,  which  were  very  inferior 
to  those  grown  at  the  present  time.  Very  little  was  done  to 
improve  corn  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but 
during  the  past  sixty  years  improve- 
ment has  been  very  rapid  and  at 
present  there  are  hundreds  of  named 
varieties.  Some  of  these  varieties 
mature  in  90  to  100  days  and  produce 
small  ears  with  shallow  kernels,  while 
others  require  140  or  more  days  to 
mature  and  produce  large,  deep- 
kerneled  ears.  In  color,  corn  kernels 
may  be  yellow,  white,  red,  black,  blue, 
or  a  mixture  of  several  of  these  colors 
and  shades.  The  cobs  are  either 
white  or  red.  Most  of  these  colors  of 
kernels  and  cobs  may  be  found  in 
any  of  the  important  classes  of  corn. 
52.  Classes  or  Types.  All  of  the 
more  important  varieties  and  types 
of  corn  may  be  grouped  into  one  of 
the  four  following  classes,  viz:  dent, 
flint,  sweet,  and  pop.  Two  other 
classes,  soft  and  pod,  are  of  little  or 
no  practical  value  in  North  America, 
but  the  others  have  a  very  important 
relation  to  the  agriculture  and  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

53'   Dent    Conl-       D«lt    COHl     iS     a 

tLd  Sorth™  adapled  to   type  in  which  the  hard  or  horny  part 

of  the  kernel  is  at  the  sides  and  does 

not  extend  over  the  crown  as  it  does  in  flint  and  pop  corn. 

This  arrangement  causes  the  crown  of  the  kernel  to  shrink 


FLINT  CORN 


51 


at  maturity,  making  an  indentation  which  distinguishes 
dent  corn  from  other  types.  This  is  the  most  important 
type  of  corn;  probably  90  per  cent  of  the  total  corn  crop 
of  the  world  is  of  this  class.  The  characters  which  make 
it  more  valuable  than  other  types  are  that  (1)  it  yields 
more;  (2)  it  does  not  produce  many 
suckers  or  tillers;  (3)  it  is  easily 
husked;  and  (4)  it  is  comparatively 
soft  and  easy  for  animals  to  masti- 
cate. Generally  speaking,  it  is 
larger  and  later  than  flint  corn, 
though  there  are  small,  early-matur- 
ing varieties  of  the  dent  type.  Ears 
of  dent  corn  may  vary  in  size  from 
4}/£  to  10  inches  in  circumference 
and  from  6  to  12  inches  in  length. 

54.  Flint  Corn.  Flint  corn,  ranks 
next  in  importance  to  the  dent  type. 
The  crown  of  the  kernel  as  well  as 
the  sides  is  covered  with  a  hard, 
horny  part  which  does  not  shrink,  or 
at  least  shrinks  evenly,  at  maturity. 
This  gives  each  kernel  a  hard, 
smooth,  flinty  appearance,  to  which 
the  name  of  the  type  is  due.  Ears 
of  flint  corn  are  usually  longer  in 
proportion  to  size  than  are  ears  of 
dent  corn.  There  are  fewer  rows  of 
kernels  on  the  ears,  the  furrows  between  the  rows  are 
usually  wider,  and  the  kernels  are  comparatively  shallow. 
It  is  very  prolific  in  the  production  of  suckers  or  stools,  mak- 
ing it  quite  valuable  as  a  fodder  crop,  but  it  does  not  yield  as 
much  grain  as  most  of  the  varieties  of  the  dent  type.  The 
ears  have  a  larger  proportion  of  cob  to  corn  than  is  found  in 


Fig.  12.     Ear  of  flint  corn. 


52 


FIELD  CROPS 


the  dent  varieties;  the  shank  of  the  ears  is  usually  large, 
making  flint  corn  much  harder  to  husk  than  dent  corn. 
Flint  corn  is  usually  earlier  in  maturing  than  most  dent 
varieties,  hence  it  is  specially  adapted  to  northern  latitudes, 

but  it  has  little  agricul- 
tural value  where  the  more 
desirable  dent  varieties 
thrive. 

55.  Sweet  Corn.  Sweet 
corn  has  practically  no 
hard  or  horny  endosperm. 
Consequently,  the  whole 
kernel  usually  shrinks  at 
maturity,  presenting  a 
shrivelled  appearance.  As 
indicated  by  its  name,  its 
chief  characteristic  is  that 
it  contains  a  higher  per- 
centage of  sugar  than  the 
other  types.  It  is  grown 
chiefly  for  human  food  and 
is  highly  prized  as  a  table 
vegetable  both  when  it  is 
green  and  fresh  in  the 
summer  and  when  pre- 
served in  that  form  or 
dried  for  winter  use.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  sweet 
corn,  differing  in  size  and  in  the  length  of  time  they  require 
to  mature.  The  stalks  are  smaller  and  finer  than  the 
stalks  of  most  varieties  of  dent  corn.  Sweet  corn  is  grown 
very  little  for  feed  for  animals,  except  that  it  is  used  in 
some  places  for  fodder  or  to  produce  palatable  feed  for  hogs 
in  the  early  fall. 


Fig.  13.  An  ear  of  sweet  corn  of 
the  Stowell's  Evergreen  type.  A 
large,  late  variety. 


VARIETIES  OF  CORN  53 

56.  Pop  Corn.     Pop  corn  is  grown  only  as  human  food 
to  be  eaten  when  popped;  that  is,  when  the  kernels  have 
been  exploded  or  turned  inside  out  by  heating.     It  is  this 
peculiar  character  from  which  it  gets  its  name.     The  kernels 
are  covered  with  a  hard,  flinty  covering  as  are  the  kernels  of 
flint  corn;  in  fact,  a  large  proportion  of  the  kernel  is  hard  and 
flinty.     Some  of  the  kernels  are  sharp-pointed  at  the  crown, 
while  others  are  rounded  and  smooth  like  flint  kernels. 
The  kernels,  ears,  and  plants  are  very  much  smaller  than  the 
other  kinds  of  corn  mentioned.     On  this  account  it  is  of  very 
little  value  for  the  production  of  feed  for  live  stock. 

57.  Varieties.    A  study  of  local  varieties  is  necessary  and 
advisable,  but  there  are  far  too  many  named  varieties  in  the 
United  States  to  make  it  worth  while  to  attempt  an  enumera- 
tion of  them.     Any  variety  of  corn  is  so  easily  changed  by 
selection  that  one  may  not  be  able  to  recognize  a  well- 
known  variety  after  some  other  person  has  been  growing  and 
selecting  it  for  some  time.     This  is  especially  true  if  it  has 
been  grown  under  different  soil  and  climatic  conditions  from 
those  in  which  he  has  seen  it  grow  before.     On  this  account, 
variety  names  are  not  important,  but  types  of  corn  and  their 
adaptability  to  various  conditions  must  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  practical  corn  growers.     (See  selection  of  corn, 
Sec.  141-153.)     A  few  of  the  important  and  widely  distrib- 
uted varieties  of   corn    are    Reid's    Yellow    Dent,   Boone 
County  White,   Silver   Mine,   Gold   Mine,   Legal   Tender, 
Silver  King,  Minnesota  No.  13,  and  Wisconsin  No.  7. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   THE   CROP 

58.  World  Production.     Corn  is  a  tropical  plant  that  is 
capable  of  withstanding  very  little  frost.     It  seems  best 
adapted,  however,  to  the  temperate  zone  and  it  is  here  that 
it    reaches    its    most    perfect    development.     The    leading 
countries  in  the  production  of  this  crop  are  the  United 


54 


FIELD  CROPS 


States,  Austria-Hungary,  Argentina,  Russia,  Egypt,  and 
Australasia,  in  the  order  named.  According  to  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  average  annual  world  production  of  corn  for  the  five 
years  from  1905  to  1909  was  3,585,418,600  bushels,  of  which 
76  per  cent  was  produced  in  the  United  States. 

59.  Production  in  the  United  States.  The  average 
acreage,  production,  yield,  and  value  of  corn  in  the  different 
states  and  its  general  distribution  are  shown  by  the  following 
table.  The  relative  importance  of  the  various  states  in 
production  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  14. 

Table  III.  Average  annual  acreage,  production,  value,  and  acre 
yield  of  corn  in  various  states  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to 
1911,  inclusive. 


Acreage. 

Production. 

Farm  value 
Dec.  1. 

Acre 
yield. 

Percent- 
age of 
total 
produc- 
tion. 

Ill  

Iowa  
Mo  
Nebr  
Ind  

Acres 

9,590,000 
9,178,000 
6,924,000 
7,497,000 
4,640,000 

Bushels 

347,790,000 
305,687,000 
212,640,000 
211,189,000 
169,374,000 

Dollars 

149,424,000 
122,725,000 
95,153,000 
79,018,000 
73,528,000 

Bushels 

36.1 
33.2 
30.8 
28.1 
36.4 

Per  cent 
13.34 

11.72 

8.16 
8.10 
6.50 

Kans 

7  420  000 

167  965  000 

71  264  000 

230 

644 

Ohio  
Texas. 

3,427,000 
6535000 

127,028,000 
125  964  000 

63,118,000 

72  789  000 

36.9 
19.0 

4.87 
4.83 

Okla  

4,429  000 

96  226  000 

41,956^000 

22.8 

3.69 

Ky... 

3,326,000 

91,612,000 

48,059,000 

27.6 

3.51 

Tenn  
Penn 

3,196,000 
1  436000 

80,119,000 
52  886  000 

44,102,000 
32  435  000 

24.8 
368 

3.07 
203 

Minn 

1  695000 

51  471  000 

22  943  000 

298 

1  97 

Wis  
S.Dak  
Mich  

1,496,000 
1,841,000 
1,540  000 

50,816,000 
49,344,000 
49,114,000 

25,464,000 
20,405,000 
26,843,000 

33.5 
26.9 
32.0 

1.95 
1.89 
.89 

Ga  

3,946,000 

48,955,000 

37,023,000 

11.4 

.88 

Ark  

2,370.000 

48,047,000 

28,226,000 

20.3 

.84 

Va... 

1,875,000 

44,456,000 

27,630,000 

23.6 

.70 

N  C 

2671  000 

42  460  000 

30  397  000 

15.9 

.64 

All  others  .  . 

12,476,000 

234,020,000 

159,599,000 

26.8 

8.98 

u.  s  

97,508,000 

2,607,163,000 

1,272,101,000 

26.8 

100.00 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN 


55 


Fig.  14.     The  percentage  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  produced 
in  the  states  of  greatest  production  (1902-1911). 

60.  Relative  Importance.  Corn  is  grown  on  a  larger 
acreage  and  produces  a  larger  total  yield  than  any  of  the 
other  cereals,  and  the  product  is  of  greater  value  than  any 
other  crop  in  the  United  States.  The  following  table,  which 
shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  farm  value  of  some  of  the  lead- 
ing farm  crops  in  1910,  will  effectively  illustrate  their  relative 
importance : 


Table  IV 


Acreage,  yield,  and  value  of  the  leading  farm  crops  in 
the  United  States  in  1910.1 


Crop. 

Area. 

Yield. 

Fa~m  value. 

Corn 

Acres 

108  771  000 

Bushels 

2  772  376  000 

Dollars 

1  523  968  000 

Hay 

45  691,000 

(a)      60,978  000 

747  769  000 

Cotton 

30,938,000 

(b)      10,004,949 

688  350  000 

Wheat. 

49,205,000 

695,443,000 

621  443  000 

Oats  

35.288,000 

1,126,765,000 

384,716  000 

Potates  

3,591,000 

338811,000 

187,985  000 

Barley  
Tobacco  

7,257,000 
1,234,000 

162,227,000 
(c)    984,349,000 

93,785,000 
91,459,000 

Flax 

2  916  000 

14  116  000 

32  554  000 

Rye.  . 

2  028  000 

33,039  000 

23  840  000 

(a)  tons;  (b)  bales;  (c)  pounds. 

iFrom  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1910. 


56  FIELD  CROPS 

Another  basis  on  which  the  importance  of  the  corn  crop 
in  the  various  states  may  be  judged  is  by  the  proportion  of 
the  improved  farm  acreage  which  is  annually  planted  to  it. 
Figure  15  shows  graphically  the  percentage  of  this  acreage 
which  was  planted  to  corn  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911 
in  the  ten  states  of  largest  production  and  in  the  United 
States.  Corn  occupied  21.86  per  cent  of  the  improved  land 
in  the  United  States,  as  compared  with  10.57  per  cent  in 
wheat  and  7.13  in  oats.  In  Nebraska,  Illinois,  and  Okla- 
homa, corn  is  planted  on  more  than  one-third  of  the  improved 
farm  land,  while  in  Iowa,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Kansas,  and 


33.98% 

Fig.  15.     The  proportion  of  the  improved  farm  acreage   in  the  leading  states 
and  the  United  States  which  is  annually  planted  to  corn  (1902-1911). 

Texas  it  is  grown  on  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  improved 
acreage.  These  figures  are  based  on  the  average  annual 
acreage  of  the  various  crops  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics  and  on  the  mean  of  the  acreage  of  improved  land 
reported  by  the  Census  of  1900  and  that  of  1910. 

61.  Acre  Yield.  The  average  yield  of  corn  to  the  acre, 
even  in  the  best  corn  states,  is  seen  to  be  very  low  in  com- 
parison with  known  yields  in  any  community.  The  states 
showing  the  highest  average  yield  are  those  with  com- 
paratively small  acreages.  The  five  states  showing  highest 
yields  are  Connecticut,  with  an  average  yield  of  39.9  bushels; 
Massachusetts,  38.3  bushels;  Maine,  37.3  bushels;  Ohio,  36.9 


HOW  CROPS  ARE  MEASURED  57 

bushels;  and  Pennsylvania,  36.8  bushels  to  the  acre.  The 
surprising  fact  shown  by  a  study  of  yields  is  that  in  the 
Northern  states,  where  small  varieties  are  grown,  the  yield 
is  considerably  more  per  acre  than  in  the  Southern  states, 
where  the  largest  varieties  thrive.  The  South,  however, 
owing  to  the  longer  season  and  more  abundant  rainfall,  has 
greater  possibilities  in  corn  production  than  can  be  found 
in  the  North,  and  yields  there  of  over  200  bushels  per  acre 
have  been  obtained  on  specially  prepared  and  fertilized  land. 
The  possibilities  for  increased  yields  are  great  in  any  part 
of  the  United  States,  and  even  in  the  northernmost  states 
yields  of  100  bushels  and  over  per  acre  are  sometimes  pro- 
duced. 

62.  Units  of  Measure  for  Farm  Crops.  Over  a  very 
large  part  of  the  United  States  the  unit  of  measure  for  the 
cereal  crops  is  the  bushel  of  2150.42  cubic  inches  capacity, 
but  since  these  crops  vary  in  weight  per  bushel  and  since 
their  values  are  more  accurately  measured  by  weight  than 
by  bulk,  a  more  accurate  comparison  of  production  and  value 
may  be  made  by  use  of  the  unit  of  measure  now  common  in 
the  Pacific  states,  the  pound  or  hundred  pounds.  It  would 
be  a  desirable  change  to  discard  the  bushel  as  a  unit  of 
measure  and  substitute  the  actual  weight  of  the  crop. 

To  show  the  value  of  this  change,  we  need  but  to  use  a 
few  illustrations  of  its  convenience.  As  most  of  our  cereals 
are  used  at  times  for  feed,  the  question  often  arises,  which 
at  certain  prices  is  it  more  economical  to  feed  and  which  to 
sell?  If  oats  are  selling  at  40  cents  per  bushel  of  32  pounds, 
and  corn  at  49  cents  per  bushel  of  56  pounds,  it  is  a  somewhat 
complicated  problem  to  determine  just  what  is  the  relative 
price  of  the  two  crops.  If  the  same  problem  were  to  arise 
and  the  relative  prices  were  the  same,  with  100  pounds  as 
the  unit  of  measure  instead  of  the  bushel,  it  would  be  stated 


58  FIELD  CROPS 

as  follows:  Oats,  $1.25  per  cwt.;  corn,  87J^  cents  per  cwt. 
The  comparison  is  instantly  and  accurately  made  without 
computation.  Another  problem  that  often  arises  on  the 
farm  is  to  determine  the  advisability  of  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing the  relative  acreages  of  some  of  the  cereal  crops.  A 
comparison  by  bushels  is  certainly  unfair,  if  feed  is  the  object 
of  the  crop.  If  one  knows  that  barley  has  been  yielding 
about  25  bushels,  oats  35  bushels,  and  corn  30  bushels  to 
the  acre,  he  is  likely  to  have  a  different  idea  of  the  relative 
importance  of  the  crops  than  he  would  were  the  yields 
stated  in  pounds  to  the  acre  as  follows :  Barley,  1200  pounds ; 
oats,  1120  pounds;  and  corn,  1680  pounds. 

SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

63.  Soils.  Corn  grows  best  in  warm,  rich,  moist,  well- 
drained  sandy  loam  soils.  It  should  not  be  inferred,  how- 
ever, that  this  crop  will  not  thrive  on  any  other  kind  of  soil, 
because  it  will  grow  and  is  grown  on  soils  of  almost  every 
type.  It  will  grow  on  very  light,  poor  land,  but  it  makes 
really  good  growth  only  on  deep,  rich  soil.  It  is  a  strong 
feeder,  and  can  make  use  of  coarse  manure  and  soddy  land 
better  than  most  other  field  crops. 

To  be  reasonably  sure  of  success,  corn  land  must  be  suffi- 
ciently well  drained  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  the 
soil  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  3  feet,  must  have  enough  plant 
food  available  for  the  production  of  ordinary  field  crops, 
and  must  be  situated  where  there  is  a  sufficient  period  of  time 
free  from  frost  to  permit  the  crop  to  mature.  A  higher 
average  temperature  must  prevail  than  is  necessary  for  some 
of  the  small  grain  and  grass  crops.  The  soil  must  be  com- 
pact enough  so  that  it  will  retain  moisture,  yet  should  be  fine 
and  mellow  enough  so  that  the  roots  may  easily  penetrate  it. 

The  corn  plant  in  its  growth  uses  large  amounts  of 


THE  USE  OF  MANURE  59 

moisture.  Corn  can  hardly  be  termed  a  dry-land  crop,  as  it 
must  have  a  reasonable  supply  of  moisture  to  succeed,  but  it 
can  be  carried  over  periods  of  drouth  of  considerable  length 
by  persistent  cultivation  to  check  evaporation.  The  soil, 
however,  must  have  contained  a  good  supply  of  moisture 
before  the  beginning  of  the  drouth.  The  only  reason  corn 
can  stand  dry  weather  better  than  the  grain  crops  is  because 
cultivation  is  possible  during  its  growth,  lessening  the  evapo- 
ration from  the  soil. 

64.  The  Application  of  Manure.    As  corn  is  a  gross- 
feeding  plant  and  is  able  to  make  good  use  of  such  sources 
of  plant  food  as  manure,  it  is  the  general  practice  to  apply 
barnyard  manure  to  the  corn  crop,  usually  before  the  land  is 
plowed.     Since  the  greater  part  of  the  manure  is  produced 
during  the  winter,  plowing  is  generally  deferred  until  spring 
so  that  all  the  manure  may  be  put  on  the  land.     Plowing 
under  coarse  stable  manure,  whether  on  sod  or  stubble 
land,  is  objectionable  from  the  standpoint  of  moisture  con- 
trol and  probably  also  in  the  matter  of  getting  the  best  use 
of  the  manure.    The  coarse  manure  lying  between  the  sub- 
soil and  the  furrow  slice  quite  effectively  separates  these  two 
portions  of  the  soil  and  retards  the  movement  of  moisture 
between  them.    Much  better  results  can  be  obtained  if  the 
land  thus  manured  is  thoroughly  disked  and  the  manure 
incorporated  in  the  top  soil  before  the  plowing  is  done,  for 
this  aids  in  getting  the  furrow  slice  firmly  settled  against  the 
subsoil. 

65.  Applying  Manure  to  Grass  Land.     A  better  practice 
than  the  one  just  mentioned  is  to  apply  manure  to  the  grass 
land  a  year  or  more  before  the  land  is  to  be  plowed  for  corn. 
Manure  applied  to  pasture  land  greatly  stimulates  the  growth 
of  grass.    By   trampling  and  by  natural  decomposition,  it 
becomes  somewhat  mixed  with  the  surface  soil  and  incor- 


60  FIELD  CROPS 

porated  with  it;  then,  when  the  land  is  plowed,  it  does  not 
act  as  a  coarse  mulch  to  separate  the  plowed  portion  from  the 
subsoil.  This  method  of  applying  manure  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  disposing  of  most  of  the  weed  seeds  which  are 
commonly  present  in  it.  Weed  seeds  in  manure  thus  applied 
are  induced  to  germinate,  but  the  plants  are  unable  to  make 
much  growth  and  have  little  opportunity  to  produce  seeds  in 
either  meadow  or  pasture. 

66.  Applying  Manure  as  a  Top-Dressing.    Another  very 
good  practice  that  is  being  followed  more  and  more  by  corn 
growers  is  to  apply  the  manure  to  corn  land  as  a  top-dressing. 
This  practice  makes  it  possible  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall. 
Manure  accumulated  about  the  yards  and  produced  in  the 
stables  during  the  winter  is  spread  on  top  of  the  fall  plowing 
and  is  disked  into  the  soil  in  the  spring  before  the  corn  is 
planted.     In  this  way  the  coarse  manure  which  is  applied 
does  not  in  any  way  tend  to  separate  the  surface  soil  from  the 
subsoil.     It  helps  to  form  a  surface  mulch  to  retard  the 
evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil,  and  it  is  near  the  sur- 
face where  many  of  the  weed  seeds  in  it  may  be  germinated 
and  the  plants  easily  killed  by  subsequent  cultivation.     It  is 
above  the  roots  of  the  plants,  so  that  leaching  from  the 
manure  carries  the  fertility  down  to  the  plant  roots,  instead 
of  carrying  it  below  and  out  of  their  reach  as  is  likely  to  be 
the  case  if  manure  is  plowed  under. 

It  has  been  found  that  from  ten  to  fifteen  loads  of  manure 
to  the  acre,  which  is  as  much  as  it  is  generally  advisable  to 
apply  at  one  time,  may  be  disked  into  the  surface  of  fall- 
plowed  land  so  thoroughly  as  to  give  little  or  no  trouble  in 
the  planting  and  cultivation  of  a  corn  crop. 

67.  Use  of  Green  Manure  Crops.    In  the  South  and  East, 
where  there  is  less  stable  manure  available  than  in  the  corn 
belt,  while  the  need  of  adding  fertility  and  vegetable  matter 


THE  USE  OF  GREEN  MANURES          61 

to  the  soil  is  greater,  the  use  of  green  manure  crops  before 
planting  corn  is  generally  beneficial.  Where  corn  is  planted 
on  sod  land,  plenty  of  vegetable  matter  is  available,  but  such 
land  is  not  common  in  the  South.  In  that  section,  the  vege- 
table matter  can  best  be  supplied  by  the  use  of  cowpeas, 
soy  beans,  velvet  beans,  crimson  clover,  bur  clover,  or  some 
crop  of  similar  nature.  The  green  manure  crop  should  be 


Fig.  16.  Hills  of  corn  six  weeks  from  planting.  Note  how  the  surface 
18  inches  of  soil  are  filled  with  roots.  The  soil  must  be  well  prepared  for 
this  rapid  growth  of  roots. 

plowed  under  some  time  previous  to  planting  corn,  so  that 
the  land  has  time  to  settle  and  the  vegetable  matter  to  decay 
to  some  extent,  but  it  is  usually  better  to  plow  in  the  early 
spring  than  in  the  fall.  Leaching  and  washing,  which  are 
very  likely  to  take  place  on  fall-plowed  land,  are  prevented 
by  the  use  of  a  cover  crop  which  is  not  plowed  under  till 
spring. 


62  FIELD  CROPS 

68.  Commercial  Fertilizers.    While  a  leguminous  green- 
manure  crop  such  as  those  suggested  in  the  previous  para- 
graph will  supply  nitrogen,  it  is  usually  necessary  throughout 
the  East  and  South  to  supply  some  phosphorus  and  potash 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  corn  crop.    Quite  frequently,  a 
complete  fertilizer  which  contains  all  three  of  the  elements 
just  mentioned  is  used.     The  fertilizer  is  quite  commonly 
distributed  along  the  row  in  two  applications,  the  first  when 
the  corn  is  about  2  feet  high  and  the  second  just  before  it 
tassels,  though  sometimes  it  is  all  applied  either  broadcast 
before  or  in  the  row  at  the  time  of  planting.     The  fertilizing 
materials  usually  used  are  cotton-seed  meal,  muriate  of 
potash,  and  acid  phosphate.     The  quantity  which  is  applied 
and  the  proportions  of  the  three  constituents  vary  greatly 
with  the  soil  on  which  the  crop  is  grown.     The  usual  quantity 
of  the  mixture  ranges  from  300  to  500  pounds,  about  two- 
thirds  of  which  is  put  on  at  the  first  application.    A  good 
corn  fertilizer  should  contain  about  8  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid,  5  to  6  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  5  to  9  per  cent  of  potash. 
It  is  not  usually  profitable  to  use  commercial  fertilizers  in 
the  corn  belt  where  there  is  plenty  of  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil,  though  on  some  soils  which  are  decidedly  deficient 
in  some  one  element,  marked  benefit  is  obtained  from  its 
addition. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL 

69.  Preparation  of  Fall-Plowed  Sod  Land.    The  ability  of 
corn  to  use  plant  food  in  a  crude  form  makes  it  possible  to 
plant  it  on  newly-broken  sod  land.     It  frequently  follows 
clover  or  some  other  hay  crop,  or  is  planted  on  a  field  that  -has 
been  in  pasture.     Such  crops  leave  the  land  somewhat  soddy, 
so  that  considerable  preparation  is  required  to  make  a  good, 
hospitable  seed  bed  for  corn. 


PREPARING  THE  LAND  FOR  CORN  63 

Sod  land  is  best  prepared  for  corn  if  it  can  be  plowed  in 
the  fall,  so  that  there  is  some  opportunity  for  it  to  decompose 
before  the  crop  is  planted.  There  is  also  time  for  the  part 
turned  by  the  plow  to  settle  sufficiently  to  establish  connec- 
tion with  the  subsoil,  so  that  in  case  of  a  shortage  of  moisture 
the  supply  in  the  lower  layers  of  soil  may  be  drawn  up  to 
the  plants  growing  in  the  furrow  slice. 

Land  plowed  in  the  fall  should  be  disked  or  harrowed 
early  in  the  spring  to  check  the  evaporation  of  moisture 
from  the  surface.  Harrowing  aids  in  warming  the  soil  by 
checking  the  evaporation.  It  also  causes  many  weed  seeds 
to  germinate;  the  young  plants  can  then  be  killed  by  later 
harro wings  before  the  crop  is  planted.  A  great  deal  of  the 
advantage  in  plowing  corn  land  in  the  fall  may  be  lost  by 
neglecting  to  harrow  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  land  is  left 
rough  and  has  settled  clear  to  the  surface,  as  is  usually  the 
case  in  the  spring  with  fall-plowed  land,  evaporation  goes 
on  very  rapidly;  and,  since  corn  is  not  usually  planted  for 
several  weeks  after  the  ground  thaws  out  in  the  spring,  there 
is  opportunity  for  the  loss  of  a  great  deal  of  moisture.  It 
is  desirable  to  disk  or  harrow  this  land  at  least  once  every 
week  till  planting  time.  In  preparing  a  seed  bed  for  corn 
the  object  should  be  to  have  the  lower  part  of  the  furrow 
slice  thoroughly  pulverized  but  compact  enough  to  permit 
the  free  movement  of  water  by  capillarity,  while  the  upper 
part  should  be  loose  enough  to  retard  the  evaporation  of 
moisture  somewhat  by  preventing  its  easy  rise  to  the  surface, 
where  it  will  be  quickly  drawn  out  by  the  sun  and  wind. 

An  additional  advantage  of  fall  plowing,  especially  in  the 
case  of  sod  land,  is  that  many  insects  are  destroyed  which 
might  otherwise  cause  considerable  injury  to  the  crop. 

70.  Preparation  of  Spring-Plowed  Sod  Land.  A  great 
deal  of  the  land  that  is  planted  to  corn  must,  for  various 


64 


FIELD  CROPS 


reasons,  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  To  get  the  best  results 
from  spring  plowing,  the  conditions  obtained  by  fall  plow- 
ing must  be  duplicated  as  nearly  as  possible.  One  of  the 
chief  difficulties  with  spring  plowing  is  that  the  soil  does  not 
have  a  chance  to  settle;  it  is  therefore  likely  to  be  so  loose 


Fig.  17.  Hills  of  corn  eleven  weeks  from 
planting.  The  roots  have  now  penetrated  to  a 
depth  of  2%  feet.  Compare  with  Figs.  16  and  18. 


that  it  dries  out  readily,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  move- 
ment of  moisture  from  the  subsoil  up  through  the  furrow 
slice  is  somewhat  retarded.  One  of  the  most  common  ways 
of  putting  spring-plowed  land  in  the  desired  condition  is  to 
harrow  and  disk  it  several  times  after  plowing  to  aid  in 


PREPARING  SPRING  PLOWING 


packing  it.  The  surface  of  spring-plowed  land  is  easily 
pulverized,  especially  if  it  is  harrowed  soon  after  it  is  plowed. 
For  this  reason,  a  spring-plowed  field  may  appear,  from  the 
surface,  to  be  in 
excellent  condition, 
when  in  reality  it  is 
in  very  poor  condi- 
tion, as  the  surface 
may  be  thoroughly 
pulverized  and  the 
lower  part  of  the 
furrow  slice  still  im- 
properly pulverized 
and  packed  against 
the  subsoil. 

A  good  deal  of 
disking  and  harrow- 
ing is  necessary  to 
prepare  a  spring- 
plowed  field  for 
corn.  A  practice 
that  is  followed  by 
many  careful  farm- 
ers is  to  disk  the 
land  thoroughly  be- 
fore plowing.  The 
pulverized  surface, 
when  turned  over,  is 
more  readily  com- 
pacted against  the 
subsoil  than  land 
which  is  not  so  pulverized.  This  is  especially  true  of  sod 
land,  for  the  stubble  and  other  vegetable  matter  on  the  sur- 


Fig.  18.  Hills  of  corn  at  maturity. 
Note  that  the  roots  have  novf  penetrated 
to  a  depth  of  4  feet.  See  Figg.  16  and  17. 


66  FIELD  CROPS 

face  of  meadow  or  pasture  land  are  liable  to  separate  the 
furrow  slice  quite  effectively  from  the  subsoil,  thus  greatly 
retarding  the  movement  of  moisture. 

Cultivation  can  be  done  more  cheaply  and  more  com- 
pletely before  the  corn  is  planted  than  afterwards,  because 
more  horses  and  larger  machines  can  be  used  and  all  of  the 
soil  can  be  cultivated  to  better  advantage. 

71.  Preparation  of  Stubble  Land.    The  methods  out- 
lined for  the  preparation  of  sod  land  for  corn  will  produce 
equally  good  results  when  applied  to  ordinary  stubble  fields. 
The  only  difference  is  that  such  lands  are  usually  more  easily 
prepared  than  sod  lands. 

PREPARATION  OF  SEED  CORN  FOR  PLANTING 

72.  Good  Seed  is  equally  as  important  as  a  well-pre- 
pared seed  bed.    Good  seed  corn  is  seed  from  a  variety 
adapted  to  one's  needs  and  conditions,  of  strong  germina- 
tion, and  sufficiently  uniform  to  insure  even  planting.     For 
the  selection  of  seed  corn  see  Sections  141-152. 

73.  Grading.    The  first  step  necessary  in  the  spring  to 
obtain  good  seed  is  to  select  ears  of  corn  from  the  supply  at 
hand  that  are  as  nearly  uniform  in  type  of  ear  and  kernel 
as  it  is  possible  to  get.     Corn  is  very  largely  planted  by 
machines.     These  machines  can  plant  uniformly  only  when 
kernels  of  uniform  size  are  used.     Two  ears  of  corn  may  be 
good  individual  ears,  but  if  the  type  of  kernel  is  different, 
when  they  are  shelled  together  they  will  make  an  uneven 
sample  of  corn  which  can  not  be  planted  uniformly.    Like- 
wise, kernels  of  corn  from  the  tip  and  butt  of  the  ear,  if 
shelled  with  the  more  uniform  kernels  in  the  middle,  make 
up  an  uneven  mixture  which  no  machine  planter  can  plant 
uniformly.     If  a  corn  grader  is  at  hand  through  which  corn 
may  be  run  and  the  small,  large,  and  irregular  kernels 


GRADING  SEED   CORN 


67 


"removed  from  those  which  are  of  a  uniform  type,  it  is  not  so 
important  that  uniform  ears  be  selected,  or  that  the  tip  and 
butt  kernels  be  removed.  If  such  a  machine  is  not  at 
hand,  as  is  the  case  on  the  majority  of  farms,  it  is  highly 
important  that  uniform  ears  be  chosen  and  that  the  tip  and 
butt  kernels  be  removed  from  these  ears  before  the  bulk  of 
the  corn  is  shelled  for  seed.  If  this  is  done,  a  reasonably 
uniform  sample  may  be  obtained. 


Fig.  19.  Grading  seed  corn  makes  it  possible  for  the  planter  to  drop 
the  seed  uniformly.  A,  the  ungraded  sample;  B,  the  large,  uniform  kernels 
for  planting;  C,  the  small  and  irregular  kernels  graded  out. 

74.  Germination.  Experiments  conducted  by  a  number 
of  experiment  stations  indicate  conclusively  that  there  is  a 
very  close  relation  between  the  stand  of  corn  and  the  yield. 
This  being  true,  it  is  of  great  importance  that  only  such  seed 
as  is  known  to  be  of  strong  germination  be  planted.  If  100 
kernels  from  a  uniform  sample  of  corn  are  taken  and  each 


68 


FIELD  CROPS 


of  the  100  kernels  grows,  producing  a  strong,  vigorous  shoot 
and  strong  roots,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  sample 
is  good;  but  if  only  90  out  of  the  100  kernels  grow,  the  sample 

is  of  questionable  value, 
because  if  such  seed  is 
planted  it  means  that  1 
acre  out  of  every  10 


T/P. 


planted 
nothing. 


will      produce 


Fig.  20.  Tip,  middle,  and  butt  kernels. 
Tip  and  butt  kernels  should  be  shelled  off 
from  the  seed  ears  and  discarded,  as  they 
are  irregular  in  shape  and  will  not  drop 
uniformly. 


75.  The  Individual 
Ear  Test.  Instead  of 
making  the  test  from  a 
bulk  sample  of  corn,  as 

suggested  above,  the  best  growers  now  recommend  and 
practice  the  testing  of  each  ear  of  corn  as  to  its  germinat- 
ing power  before  ___— ~— ^— 
it  is  shelled,  and 
if  it  does  not 
germinate  strong- 
ly it  is  discarded. 
There  are  a  num- 
ber of  different 
ways  of  making 
this  test,  all  of 
which  are  good. 
The  method  out- 
lined in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs 
is  as  good  as  any; 
nothing  but  home- 
made apparatus 
and  but  little 
labor  and  time 


are  required. 


Fig.  21.  A  germination  box  for  testing  one  hum' red 
ears  of  saed  corn.  Note  that  the  outside  rows  of 
squares  are  two  inches  from  the  sides  of  the  box;  t  e 
space  outside  these  squares  dries  out  and  does  not  gr  e 
a  true  test  of  germination.  Note  also  the  roll  of  cloih 
at  the  top;  this  forms  the  cover  when  the  box  is  filled. 


MAKING  THE  GERMINATION  TEST  69 

To  make  the  test,  some  method  of  numbering  each  indi- 
vidual ear  must  be  used.  There  are  several  different  ways 
of  numbering  the  ears,  among  which  are  the  following: 
(1)  The  ears  may  be  placed  on  a  seed-corn  tree  (Fig.  40)  and 
a  number  placed  on  the  tree  near  each  one  of  the  nails.  (2) 
If  the  corn  is  hung  up  by  the  double-string  method  (Fig.  41) 
the  ears  may  be  numbered  without  taking  them  out  of  the 
strings  by  numbering  one  string  1,  the  next  string  11,  the 
next  21,  and  so  on,  assuming  that  there  are  ten  ears  in  each 
string  and  that  the  ears  in  the  string  are  counted  from  1  to  10. 
If  there  are  13  ears  in  each  string,  for  example,  the  second 
string  is  marked  14,  the  third  27,  and  so  on.  (3)  Another 
method  of  numbering  is  to  lay  the  ears  side  by  side  on  a 
plank  and  drive  a  tenpenny  nail  between  each  two  ears. 
In  this  way  each  ear  of  corn  will  be  separated  from  the  next 
by  a  nail,  and  the  number  may  be  written  just  beneath  each 
ear  with  a  piece  of  lead  or  a  pencil. 

76.  The  Germination  Box.    The  germination  box  may 
be  made  of  any  desired  size.     A  convenient  size  is  2  feet 
square,  which  will  provide  ample  room  for  testing  100  ears 
of  corn.     The  box,  which  should  be  from  3  to  5  inches  deep, 
is  filled  to  within  an  inch  or  so  of  the  top  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust, preferably  sawdust,  and  this  material  is  then  thoroughly 
packed.     A  piece  of  white  cloth  2  feet  square  marked  off 
with  a  lead  pencil  into  2-inch  squares  is  placed  over  the  saw- 
dust and  tacked  into  position.     By  leaving  the  outside  row 
of  squares  vacant  clear  around  the  box,  there  will  remain  100 
squares.     These  should  be  numbered  from  1  to  100,  or  enough 
of  the  squares  numbered  so  that  the  number  of  any  one  can 
be  determined  easily.     It  is  desirable  to  leave  the  outer  row 
of  squares  vacant,  for  the  box  is  likely  to  dry  out  along  the 
edges,  making  the  test  unreliable. 

77.  Placing  the  Kernels.    When  the  box  is  ready  and 
the  ears  are  numbered,  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  a  definite 


70 


FIELD  CROPS 


number  of  kernels  from  different  parts  of  ear  No.  1  and 
place  them  on  square  No.  1  in  the  box,  the  same  number 
from  ear  No.  2  on  square  No.  2,  and  so  on  until  the 
box  is  filled.  Six  kernels  from  each  ear,  which  is  the  usual 
number  taken,  will  give  a  very  fair  test.  Reading  the  test 
is  facilitated  if  each  kernel  is  laid  germ  side  up  and  all  are 
laid  with  the  tips  in  one  direction.  When  the  box  is  filled, 
it  is  sprinkled  until  the  corn  and  sawdust  are  thoroughly 

moistened.  A  dry  cloth 
is  then  laid  over  the 
corn,  and  on  top  of  this 
a  second  cloth,  to  be 
covered  with  more  saw- 
dust. The  box  is  then 
placed  in  a  warm  room, 
as  a  living  room,  and 
kept  moist  for  five  or  six 
days,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  cover  is  re- 
moved and  the  test  read. 
The  cover  should  be 
taken  off  carefully,  as 
some  of  the  sprouts  may 
have  grown  through  the 
cloth  so  that  they  are  likely  to  be  displaced  in  removing 
it.  It  is  desirable  to  save  only  the  ears  from  which 
every  kernel  germinates  strongly.  Ears  from  which  all  the 
kernels  do  not  germinate  strongly  should  be  discarded. 
When  one  has  a  variety  of  corn  known  to  be  adapted  to  his 
conditions,  has  selected  and  graded  it  till  the  kernels  are 
uniform,  and  has  tested  the  germination  and  discarded 
all  that  did  not  germinate  100  per  cent,  he  has  good 
seed  corn. 


Fig.  22.  Germination  of  corn  kernels.  The 
one  at  the  left  has  the  tip  shoot  only;  the  one 
in  the  center,  the  root;  only  the  one  at  the 
right,  with  both  root  and  tip  strongly  devel- 
oped, will  produce  a  strong  plant. 


PLANTING  CORN 


PLANTING  CORN 


71 


78.  Important   Factors    in    Planting.    There    are    four 
points  of  importance  to  consider  relative  to  planting  corn. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  time  of  planting;  second,  depth  of 
planting;  third,  method  of  planting;  and  fourth,  thickness  of 
planting. 

79.  Time  of  Planting.     The  time  of  planting  corn  varies 
with  the  season  and  the  location.     Corn  is  a  semitropical 
plant  which  will  not  stand  frost;  on  this  account,  it  must  not 
be  planted  until  the  season  is  pretty  well  advanced  or  until 
danger  of  frost  is  past.     Corn  planted  in  cold,  wet  ground 


I  NO«TH^OAKOTA  !      l          ><£; 

r    ~~<\     '• 


Fig.  23.     Average  dates  of  beginning  corn  planting  throughout  the 
United  States  (Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bui.  84), 


72  FIELD  CROPS 

does  not  do  well,  and  seed  that  would  normally  germinate 
and  grow  strongly  may  be  entirely  lost  if  planted  when  con- 
ditions are  not  suitable.  Generally,  it  is  safe  to  delay  plant- 
ing until  there  is  every  indication  of  favorable  conditions  of 
soil  and  weather.  Corn  planted  May  20th  may  easily  out- 
strip in  growth  and  yield  that  planted  under  less  favorable 
conditions  ten  days  earlier. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  no  definite  date  for  planting  can 
be  set,  even  for  one  locality,  and  much  less  for  the  United 
States.  It  is  usually  well  to  plant  as  early  as  soil  and  weather 
conditions  will  warrant.  The  date  will  naturally  vary  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  from  March  1st  in  the 
South  to  June  1st  in  the  extreme  North.  The  accompanying 
map,  Figure  23,  shows  the  average  date  when  corn  planting 
is  begun  in  the  various  sections,  as  compiled  from  a  large 
mass  of  information  on  this  subject  collected  by  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

80.  Depth  of  Planting.  Since  corn  thrives  best  in  a  warm, 
moist  soil,  it  is  obvious  that  rather  shallow  planting  will  be 
most  likely  to  furnish  the  best  conditions  at  the  season  of  the 
year  that  corn  is  usually  planted.  The  depth  must  neces- 
sarily be  varied  with  the  condition  of  the  soil.  The  seed 
must  be  planted  deep  enough  so  that  it  can  get  sufficient 
moisture  to  germinate,  but  it  is  not  necessary  or  desirable 
to  plant  it  deeper.  On  light  or  very  loose  soils,  it  should  be 
planted  deeper  than  on  heavy  soils.  On  soil  that  has  been 
well  prepared,  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  plant  deeper 
than  2  inches  to  get  sufficient  moisture,  and  1  inch  is  to  be 
preferred  if  there  is  enough  moisture  present. 

In  some  of  the  drier  sections  of  the  corn  belt,  listing  is 
practiced.  Listing  is  planting  corn  in  the  bottom  of  a  fur- 
row from  3  to  5  inches  deep  and  covering  it  with  only  1  or  2 
inches  of  soil.  As  the  corn  grows  and  the  field  is  cultivated, 


PLANTING  CORN 


73 


the  soil  is  gradually  thrown  in  about  the  plants.  This 
method  of  planting  is  not  advisable  except  in  very  dry 
locations,  for  experiments  have  shown  that  even  in  regions 
of  light  rainfall  corn  planted  in  the  usual  way  has  given 
larger  yields  than  listed  corn,  except  in  the  very  driest 
seasons. 

81.  Method  of  Planting.  There  are  two  common 
methods  of  planting  corn  for  the  production  of  grain.  The 
first  is  in  checked  rows,  with  hills  42  or  44  inches  apart  each 
way.  The  second  is  in  drills  42  or  44  inches  apart,  with  the 
kernels  of  corn  dropped 
in  the  drills  from  9  to 
18  inches  apart.  Some 
good  corn  growers  follow 
one  method,  some  the 
other.  Those  who  advo- 
cate drilling  corn  claim 
that  less  cultivation  is 
required,  and  because 
the  corn  is  better  dis- 
tributed, larger  yields 
are  obtained.  The  facts 
do  not  seem  to  bear 
out  this  contention,  though  on  specially  clean  soil  and  in 
years  when  the  rainfall  is  normal  or  more  than  normal, 
slightly  larger  yields  have  been  obtained  from  drilling.  In 
a  large  number  of  tests  conducted  by  several  experiment 
stations,  however,  there  has  not  been  sufficient  difference  in 
yield  to  warrant  advocating  one  method  above  the  other. 

One  of  the  objects  in  growing  corn  is  to  clean  the  land  of 
weeds.  This  certainly  can  be  more  thoroughly  accomplished 
if  the  corn  is  planted  in  checked  rows  and  cultivated  both 
ways  than  if  planted  in  drills;  on  this  account,  it  is  deemed 


Fig.  24.  Planting  corn  with  the  check-row 
planter.  Long,  straight  rows  make  the  work 
of  cultivation  easy. 


74  FIELD  CROPS 

advisable,  on  most  soils,  to  plant  in  this  manner.  It  is 
also  easier  to  husk  hill  corn  than  drill  corn,  but  if  it  is  to  be 
fed  out  of  the  bundle  the  advantage  of  the  larger  number  of 
small  ears  is  in  favor  of  drilling.  On  rich  soils,  such  as  clover 
sod,  that  are  comparatively  free  from  weeds,  drilling  corn 
may  give  very  good  satisfaction,  especially  if  the  land  is 
thoroughly  prepared  before  the  corn  is  planted.  On  hilly  or 
broken  land  it  is  also  often  advisable  to  plant  in  drills  to 
prevent  washing  of  the  soil  and  to  avoid  the  difficulty  of  short 
turns  in  cultivation.  On  the  majority  of  farms,  however,  it 
is  generally  better  to  plant  corn  so  that  it  may  be  culti- 
vated both  ways. 

82.  Thickness  of  Planting.  The  general  practice  in 
planting  corn  is  to  plant  in  hills  44  inches  apart,  with  three 
kernels  to  the  hill;  or,  if  planted  in  drills,  to  use  about  the 
same  quantity  of  seed.  It  has  been  shown  by  numerous 
tests  throughout  the  corn  belt  that  a  stand  of  three  stalks  to 
the  hill,  as  a  rule,  gives  about  as  large  yields  as  can  be 
expected.  Where  tests  have  been  made  with  two,  three, 
and  four  stalks  to  the  hill,  the  yields  have  been  slightly 
larger  with  four  stalks  than  with  three,  and  much  larger  with 
four  or  three  than  with  only  two.  From  these  experiments, 
it  is  pretty  safe  to  plan  on  at  least  three  stalks  to  the  hill, 
while  four  stalks  are  preferable  to  three.  If  there  is  any 
question  about  the  quality  of  seed  planted,  the  effort  should 
be  to  plant  four  kernels  in  each  hill  instead  of  two  and  three. 
From  4  to  7  quarts  of  seed  are  required  to  plant  an  acre. 

A  large  number  of  tests  to  determine  the  distance  apart 
to  plant  corn  have  shown  that  slightly  larger  yields  are 
obtained  by  putting  the  rows  more  closely  together  than  is 
the  common  practice.  A  test  made  by  the  Illinois  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  for  two  years  shows  a  yield  of 
58.3  bushels  to  the  acre  when  corn  was  planted  39J^  inches 


TYPES  OF  CORN  PLANTERS  75 

apart  each  way  with  three  kernels  to  the  hill,  as  compared 
with  53.9  bushels  from  hills  44  inches  apart  each  way,  three 
kernels  to  the  hill.  The  increased  yield  from  the  closer 
planting  in  this  case  was  a  little  more  than  sufficient  to  cover 
the  increased  cost  of  growing  corn  in  hills  39J^  inches  apart 
each  way  over  that  in  44-inch  hills.  With  some  of  the 
smaller  varieties  of  corn  grown  in  the  North,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  better  results  can  be  obtained  by  planting  from 
36  to  40  inches  apart  each  way  than  from  following  the  gen- 
eral practice  of  planting  44  inches  each  way.  Throughout 
the  corn  belt,  however,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  common 
practice  of  planting  corn  in  checked  rows  44  inches  apart, 
and  with  three  to  four  kernels  to  the  hill,  can  hardly  be 
improved.  On  poor  land  in  the  South  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  plant  corn  in  rows  as  wide  as  5  feet  apart. 

83.  Types  of  Planters.  Corn  is  often  planted  in  small 
patches  by  hand,  using  a  hoe  to  open  the  hills  and  to  cover 
the  kernels  after  they  have  been  dropped.  This  method  of 
planting  is  very  slow.  Hand  planters  are  sometimes  used, 
but  they  are  very  inferior  to  the  two-row  horse  planter  which 
is  the  implement  always  used  where  any  considerable  acreage 
of  corn  is  grown.  From  12  to  18  acres  may  be  planted  in  a 
day  by  one  man  and  two  horses  with  a  two-row  planter. 
Most  of  these  planters  may  be  used  for  either  checking  or 
drilling  corn.  There  are  two  types  of  horse  planters.  In 
the  round-hole  type,  the  desired  number  of  kernels  to  the 
hill  is  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  holes  in  the  disks  or  planter 
plates  used;  in  the  other,  the  edge-drop  planter,  the  number 
of  kernels  to  the  hill  is  regulated  by  the  number  of  places  in 
the  edge  of  the  disk,  each  of  which  will  permit  one  kernel  to 
enter  edgewise.  The  edge-drop  planter  is  more  accurate 
than  the  round-hole  planter  if  the  seed  corn  used  is  all  graded 


76  FIELD  CROPS 

to  a  uniform  size,  but  with  irregular  kernels  of  corn  the  round- 
hole  type  is  to  be  preferred. 

CULTIVATION 

84.  Objects  of  Cultivation.    The  objects  of  cultivating 
corn  are  to  conserve  moisture,  to  liberate  plant  food,  and  to 
destroy  weeds.     As  previously  stated,  (Sec.  70),  it  is  cheaper 
to  do  as  much  of  the  cultivation  as  possible  before  the  crop 
is  planted.     If  this  is  done,  the  labor  of  keeping  a  field  in 
good  condition  during  the  growth  of  the  crop  is  greatly 
reduced. 

85.  Harrowing.     There    is    considerable    difference    of 
opinion  as  to  the  advisability  of  harrowing  corn  land  after 
the  crop  is  planted.     During  the  first  couple  of  days  after 
planting,  it  may  be  harrowed  without  danger  of  injury,  but 
as  soon  as  the  kernels  of  corn  begin  to  germinate  there  is 
more  or  less  danger  that  the  harrow  teeth  will  destroy  some 
of  the  kernels  or  plants. 

It  seems  somewhat  inconsistent  to  spend  a  good  deal  of 
effort  in  grading  and  testing  seed  corn  to  insure  a  perfect 
stand  and  then  to  go  on  the  field  with  a  large  harrow  that 
is  capable  of  destroying  from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  plants 
at  one  operation.  One  can  hardly  set  any  hard  and  fast 
rules  for  the  care  of  corn,  because  so  much  depends  on  the 
soil  and  especially  on  the  weather  conditions ;  but,  if  planting 
is  deferred  until  conditions  are  favorable  and  the  seed  is 
planted  only  on  soil  that  is  in  thoroughly  good  condition, 
harrowing  normally  will  be  unnecessary.  However,  if  cold, 
rainy  weather  comes  on  after  the  corn  is  planted,  preventing 
its  prompt  germination  and  growth,  it  is  probably  better 
to  harrow  the  field  and  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition  than 
to  allow  it  to  become  baked  and  hard  and  to  permit  weeds  to 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  CORN  77 

grow,  even  if  a  portion  of  the  plants  is  destroyed  by  this 
treatment. 

86.  Blind  Cultivation.     In  many  instances,  blind  culti- 
vation,— that  is,  cultivating  the  corn  before  it  is  up  by 
following  the  rows,  as  indicated  by  the  planter  marks, — 
is  a  desirable  practice.     By  cultivating  as  soon  as  it  is  evident 
that  the  soil  should  be  stirred,  even  throwing  a  little  soil  on 
top  of  the  row,  its  condition  may  be  greatly  improved  and 
many  small  weeds  may  be  destroyed  without  danger  of 
injuring  the  small  corn  plants.     If  this  practice  is  followed, 
the  necessity  of  harrowing  can  often  be  obviated. 

87.  Use  of  the  Weeder.    The  weeder  is  often  used  during 
the  early  stages  of  cultivation  with  good  results.     The  weeder 
is  such  a  light  implement  that  unless  the  soil  is  in  fairly  good 
condition  it  cannot  do  much  work;  but  if  the  soil  has  been 
harrowed  or,  preferably,  blind-cultivated,  going  over  it  with 
a  weeder  will  destroy  many  small  weeds  and  leave  the  soil 
soft  and  mellow  on  top  of  the  hills,  so  that  the  plants  can 
easily  push  their  way  out. 

88.  Types  of  Cultivators.    There  is  room  for  a  good  deal 
of  personal  preference  in  the  selection  of  tools  for  the  culti- 
vation of  corn.     There  are,  however,  a  few  simple  principles 
that  are  worthy  of  consideration  in  the  selection  of  these 
implements.     A  cultivator  is  used  to  loosen  the  soil,  some- 
times when  it  is  rather  heavy  and  hard,  and  also  to  tear  out 
rather  large  weeds,  which  should  not  be  in  a  corn  field,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  are  often  found  there.     It  is  evident, 
then,  that  a  cultivator,  to  be  useful  for  these  purposes,  must 
have  considerable  strength  and  must  be  capable  of  stirring 
considerable  soil  to  a  reasonable  depth. 

The  types  of  sulky  cultivators  in  more  or  less  common 
use  include  those  with  two  shovels  on  each  side,  the  shovels 
necessarily  being  large  to  cover  the  ground;  those  with  three 


78  FIELD  CROPS 

shovels  on  each  side,  the  individual  shovels  somewhat 
smaller  but  still  comparatively  large;  and  those  with  four 
or  more  rather  small  shovels  on  either  side.  There  are  also 
•the  so-called  surface  cultivators  with  flat  blades  instead  of 
shovels,  and  disk  cultivators.  The  blades  of  the  surface 
cultivators  are  Set  diagonally  and  run  just  under  the  surface 
rof  the  ground. 

89.  Uses  of  Different  Types.  It  is  evident  that  some  of 
these  types  of  cultivators  are  better  adapted  to  some  con- 
ditions than  to  others,  and  that  all  of  them  have  their  place. 
It  is  also  evident  that  the  number  of  shovels,  the  size  of 
shovels,  their  arrangement,  and  the  way  they  pass  through 
the  soil  have  much  to  do  with  the  clogging  of  the  gangs  by 
weeds  or  other  refuse  that  may  be  in  the  soil.  Clogging  and 
inability  to  tear  up  heavy,  weedy  soil  are  some  of  the  objec- 
tions to  cultivators  having  several  small  shovels  on  either 
side.  Those  having  two  or  three  rather  large  shovels  are 
objectionable  chiefly  because,  in  order  to  stir  thoroughly 
all  of  the  ground  over  which  they  pass,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  run  the  shovels  deeper  than  is  desirable,  with  the  result 
that  the  corn  roots  are  injured.  Surface  cultivators  are 
ideal  so  far  as  avoiding  root  injury  and  keeping  weeds  cut 
off  below  the  surface  are  concerned,  but  are  not  as  efficient 
as  the  shovel  types  in  loosening  the  soil,  in  working  in  very 
weedy  land,  or  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of  coarse  manure. 
On  this  account,  it  appears  that  for  general  work  on  the  farm 
a  cultivator  with  three  or  four  moderate-sized  shovels  on 
either  side,  set  diagonally  so  they  are  not  likely  to  be  clogged 
with  weeds  or  refuse,  is  the  more  desirable  type  of  implement 
for  general  use.  If  a  combination  machine  can  be  had,  on 
which  blades  for  surface  cultivation  and  sets  of  shovels  can 
be  used  as  desired,  a  still  better  implement  is  available. 


TYPES  OF   CORN  CULTIVATORS 


79 


90.  Two-Row  Cultivators.     In  recent  years,   many  of 
the  larger  corn  growers  have  used  the  two-row  cultivators. 
These  are  certainly  economical,  as  where  the  soil  is  well 
prepared  and  the  planting  well  done,  a  man  can  handle  such 
a  machine  practically  as  well  as  he  can  a  one-row  cultivator, 
thus  considerably  reducing  the  cost  of  cultivation. 

91.  One-Horse  Cultivators.    To  complete    any  equip- 
ment for  corn  cultivation,  a  fine-tooth,  one-horse  cultivator 
should  be  available  for  use  after  the  plants  are  too  high  to 
cultivate  with  the  ordinary  tools.     It  often  happens  that  the 


Fig.  25.     The  two-row  cultivator,  an  economical  tool  for  US3  in  large  fields 
that  have  been  well  prepared. 

surface  mulch  made  by  the  cultivation  given  during  the 
early  part  of  the  season  is  entirely  eliminated  by  a  heavy 
rain;  then,  in  order  to  save  the  moisture  needed  for  the  later 
development  of  the  crop,  the  surface  of  the  soil  must  be 
stirred.  This  can  best  be  done  with  one  of  these  fine-tooth, 
one-horse  cultivators  that  will  stir  the  surface  thoroughly 
and  yet  not  go  deep  enough  to  injure  the  roots  seriously. 


80  FIELD  CROPS 

92.  Depth  of  Cultivation.  It  is  impossible  to  state  any 
arbitrary  depth  at  which  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate  corn. 
The  object  of  the  cultivation  should  be  to  leave  the  soil  in  a 
loose,  mellow  condition  on  the  surface  and  to  destroy  any 
weeds  that  may  be  growing,  with  as  little  injury  as  possible 
to  the  corn  roots.  Anyone  may  convince  himself,  by  careful 
observation,  that  the  roots  of  corn  quite  thoroughly  occupy 
the  entire  soil  area  between  the  rows  by  the  time  the  plants 
are  12  to  15  inches  high  (Fig.  16).  Since  the  roots  are  the 
chief  means  the  plant  has  of  obtaining  plant  food  and  mois- 
ture, it  is  plain  that  to  injure  any  of  these  roots  lessens  the 
feeding  area  and  the  food  supply  of  the  corn  plant. 

Corn  roots  or,  in  fact,  the  roots  of  any  plants,  are  sure  to 
grow  in  the  portion  of  the  soil  that  furnishes  the  best  con- 
ditions for  their  growth.  In  wet  years,  when  the  soil  is 
saturated  with  moisture,  there  is  likely  to  be  a  scarcity  of 
air  in  the  soil ;  hence  the  roots  of  plants  will  grow  quite  near 
to  the  surface.  In  dry  years,  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
moisture,  especially  in  the  surface,  the  roots  will  grow  deeper 
in  search  of  moisture.  From  these  facts  it  is  evident  that 
it  is  safe  to  cultivate  more  deeply  in  dry  years  than  in  wet 
ones.  The  depth  to  which  the  field  has  been  plowed  also 
influences  .the  depth  at  which  roots  will  grow  most  abun- 
dantly. 

The  depth  of  cultivation  should  always  be  regulated  by 
the  depth  at  which  the  corn  roots  grow  and  by  the  necessity 
for  deep  cultivation,  such  as  weeds  or  a  heavy,  wet  condition 
of  the  soil.  If  deep  cultivation  must  be  practiced,  it  is 
safer  to  cultivate  deep  while  the  corn  plants  are  small.  They 
then  have  smaller  root  systems  and  are  injured  less  by  hav- 
ing some  of  the  roots  broken  off.  The  practice  followed  by 
the  best  corn  growers  at  present  is  to  cultivate  deep  at  the 
first  cultivation,  if  deep  cultivation  is  necessary  at  all,  and 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  CORN  81 

then  to  cultivate  as  shallow  as  is  consistent  with  keeping  the 
soil  in  good  condition  and  free  from  weeds. 

93.  Frequency  of  Cultivation.     If  care  is  exercised  not  to 
disturb  the  roots  of  the  corn  plant,  cultivating  often  enough 
to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  maintain  a  good  surface  mulch 
to  retain  moisture  is  desirable.    The  soil  can  usually  be 
kept  in  good  condition  by  cultivating  three  or  four  times, 
though  sometimes  eight  or  even  more  times  through  the  corn 
will  be  more  profitable. 

The  impression  used  to  be  quite  general  that  it  was  not 
advisable  to  cultivate  corn  after  it  had  tasseled.  There 
were  two  principal  reasons  for  this  belief.  First,  sulky  culti- 
vators can  not  well  be  used  at  that  time.  Second,  corn 
growers,  not  realizing  the  loss  that  might  come  from  cutting 
off  corn  roots,  found  that  cultivating  the  corn  after  it  had 
reached  that  state  usually  resulted  in  injury  rather  than 
benefit  to  the  crop.  It  has  now  been  quite  definitely  shown 
that  this  injury  was  due  to  the  cutting  off  of  roots  and  to  no 
other  reason.  Many  good  corn  growers  now  find  it  very 
profitable  to  go  through  their  corn  fields  quite  late  in  the 
season  with  a  one-horse,  fine-tooth  cultivator  and  stir  the 
surface  soil  quite  thoroughly,  thus  retarding  evaporation 
and  giving  the  corn  a  larger  supply  of  moisture  at  the  time 
it  is  most  needed;  that  is,  when  it  is  forming  ears.  If  care 
is  exercised  not  to  cut  off  the  roots,  it  is  perfectly  safe  to 
cultivate  corn  at  any  time  during  the  growing  season. 

HARVESTING  CORN 

94.  Picking.    A  large  percentage  of  the  corn  grown  in  the 
corn  belt  is  harvested  by  picking  the  ears  from  the  standing 
stalks,  leaving  the  stalks  in  the  field  to  be  pastured  off  by 
stock  or  to  be  cut  up  and  plowed  under.     Corn  is  usually 
picked  by  hand.     One  man  uses  a  team  and  wagon  with  high 


82 


FIELD  CROPS 


"throw  board"  on  one  side  of  the  wagon  box;  the  team  is 
driven  through  the  field  astride  one  row,  and  the  man  picks 
the  two  rows  at  the  side  of  the  wagon,  the  team  stepping 
ahead  slowly  as  the  husking  progresses.  The  high  board 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  wagon  aids  the  husker  in  striking 
the  box.  From  these  wagons  the  corn  is  shovelled  into 
cribs,  where  it  is  stored  until  used.  In  the  South,  the  ears 
are  simply  snapped  from  the  stalks,  the  husks  being  left  on 
to  protect  the  grain  from  insects. 


Fig.    26. 


Husking   corn   from   the   standing   stalks.     The    usual    method 
of  harvesting. 


During  the  last  few  years,  machine  pickers  have  been 
invented  and  are  now  in  use  to  some  extent.  These  machines 
must  be  driven  over  each  row  of  corn ;  a  set  of  rolls  pulls  off 
the  ears  and  takes  off  the  husks;  the  husked  ears  are  then 
elevated  into  a  wagon  which  is  driven  beside  the  husker  as  it 
goes  across  the  field.  These  machines,  of  course,  can  not 
husk  corn  under  all  conditions  as  clean  as  it  can  be  done  by 


STORING   CORN  83 

hand,  but  they  reduce  the  man  labor  required  and  make  it 
possible  to  get  out  large  acreages  in  a  short  time. 

95.  Storing  Corn.  Corn  can  not  be  stored  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  grains,  because  of  its  liability  to  heat.  It 
is  practically  impossible  to  store  a  large  quantity  of  it  together 
until  it  is  at  least  a  year  old,  without  great  danger  of  its  heat- 
ing and  spoiling. 


Fig.  27.     The  corn  picker,  a  machine  for  gathering  the  ears  from  standing  corn. 
Not  yet  in  general  use. 

The  most  common  method  of  storing  corn  is  in  the  corn- 
crib,  a  narrow  bin  with  slatted  sides  so  that  air  can  circulate 
freely  through  it.  Two  and  one-half  cubic  feet  of  space  are 
required  for  a  bushel  of  corn  on  the  ear,  which  is  the  form  in 
which  it  can  most  safely  be  stored.  If  40  acres  of  corn  are 
produced  on  a  farm  of  160  acres  and  storage  room  must  be 
provided  for  30  acres  with  a  yield  of  50  bushels  to  the  acre, 
3750  cubic  feet  of  space  are  required.  To  furnish  this  space, 


84  FIELD  CROPS 

four  cribs  8  feet  deep  and  20  feet  long,  5  feet  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom and  7  feet  wide  at  the  top,  would  be  necessary.  If 
possible,  the  corncrib  should  be  raised  on  concrete  pillars 
high  enough  so  that  mice  and  rats  can  not  readily  get  into  it. 
The  bottom  should  be  tight,  to  save  the  corn  that  will  natur- 
ally shell  off  as  it  is  handled,  but  the  sides  are  commonly  made 
of  1  by  3  or  1  by  4  inch  material  nailed  on  to  the  studding 
with  an  inch  open  space  between  the  cleats.  Cribs  wider 
than  6  feet  should  have  some  provision  made  for  the  circu- 
lation of  air  through  the  middle.  This  may  be  easily  sup- 
plied by  standing  three  or  four  posts  erect,  and  placing 
woven  wire  around  these  so  as  to  make  a  spout  up  through 
the  center  of  the  crib.  The  spout  may  be  from  6  inches  to  2 
feet  across  and  should  extend  from  a  hole  through  the  floor 
of  the  crib  to  allow  free  circulation  of  air.  With  these  spouts 
placed  every  6  or  8  feet  through  the  center  of  the  crib,  it  is 
safe  to  make  the  crib  from  8  to  12  feet  wide.  Two  or  more 
cribs  may  be  placed  under  one  roof.  A  very  common  prac- 
tice is  to  place  two  cribs  12  to  14  feet  apart,  cover  them  with 
one  roof,  and  use  the  driveway  between  them  for  a  wagon- 
shed. 

96.  Handling  Bundle  Corn.    A  great  deal  of  corn  is  not 
husked,  but  is  fed  in  the  bundle.     When  it  is  desired  to 
handle  corn  in  this  way,  it  is  cut  with  a  corn  binder  (Fig.  30) 
and  shocked.     It  is  then  either  hauled  to  the  yards  as  it  is 
fed  or  stacked  in  very  narrow  ricks.     It  is  impractical  to 
stack  corn  in  large  stacks,  as  it  is  liable  to  heat. 

97.  Shredded  Corn  Stover.    In  some  instances,  corn  that 
has  been  cut  and  shocked  is  run  through  machines  called 
shredders  which  husk  the  ears  and  tear  the  stalks  into  fine 
bits.     Corn  stalks  are  not  made  more  palatable  by  running 
them  through  the  shredder,  but  they  are  made  much  more 
convenient  to  handle  and  the  corn  is  husked  by  machine 


MAVINQ  THE  CORN  STALKS 


85 


power  instead  of  by  hand.  The  cost  of  shredding  the  corn 
is  fully  as  great  as  husking  the  shocked  corn  by  hand.  The 
advantages  of  the  process  are  that  the  work  is  quickly  done 
and  the  stover  is  in  better  condition  to  handle,  though  it  is 
often  quite  difficult  to  keep  it,  as  it  is  very  likely  to  heat  or 
mold  if  it  is  not  thoroughly  dry  when  shredded. 

98.  Cost  of  Saving  Corn  Stover.     It  sometimes  seems  very 
wasteful  to  see  large  fields  of  corn  in  which  the  stalks  have 


Fig.  28.     Shredding  corn  fodder  and  storing  it  in  the    barn  where  it  will  be 
convenient  for  feeding. 

been  left  standing,  and  where  little  or  no  use  is  made  of  these 
stalks.  There  is  considerable  value  in  corn  stover,  yet  it  is 
quite  expensive  to  save  it.  Experiments  conducted  in  Min- 
nesota show  that  it  costs  $11.66  an  acre  to  grow  corn  where 
the  corn  is  husked  from  the  standing  stalks,  and  $15.30  an 
acre  where  the  corn  is  cut,  shocked,  and  shredded.  Thus, 
the  shredded  corn  stover  costs  $3.64  per  acre.  A  fair  yield 


86  FIELD  CROPS 


of  corn  stover  is  from  1J4  to  1J^  tons  per  acre.  If  the  yield 
is  1^2  tons,  the  cost  per  ton  would  be  $2.43.  As  compared 
with  clover  hay  at  $8  a  ton,  corn  stover  has  been  shown  to 
be  worth  but  $3  a  ton.  If  clover  is  worth  $4  a  ton,  approxi- 
mately the  cost  of  production,  then  corn  stover  is  worth  but 
$1.50  a  ton.  To  make  corn  stalks  or  corn  stover  worth 
enough  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  saving  them,  or  $2.43  a  ton, 
clover  hay  would  need  to  be  worth  $6.50  a  ton.  These 
facts  illustrate  that  in  a  good  many  instances  it  is  not  econ- 
omy to  save  the  corn  stover,  but  preferable  to  raise  clover 
hay  for  feed.  However,  when  forage  is  high  in  price  and 
clover  hay  is  worth  from  $8  to  $12  per  ton,  it  becomes  a 
paying  investment  to  save  corn  stover. 

99.  Pasturing  Stalk  Fields.    The  practice  is  very  general 
throughout  the  corn  belt  of  allowing  stock  to  run  in  the  corn- 
fields after  the  corn  has  been  husked,  whenever  weather 
conditions  are  favorable  throughout  the  fall  and  winter. 
There  are  some  reports  of  injury  to  stock  by  this  practice,  but 
it  has  not  been  definitely  shown  that  the  injury  comes 
directly  from  the  corn  stalks,  and  the  practice  is  still  con- 
tinued even  by  the  very  best  stockmen  and  corn  growers. 

100.  Hogging  Off  Corn.    Constantly  increasing  acreages 
of  corn  are  being  harvested  by  simply  turning  hogs  into  the 
field  as  soon  as  the  corn  is  ripe  and  allowing  them  to  gather 
the  crop.    This  practice  may  seem  very  slovenly  and  waste- 
ful, but  careful  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  pork 
may  be  produced  economically  in  this  way;  that  is,  that  an 
acre  of  corn  will  produce  fully  as  much  and  usually  a  little 
more  pork  if  the  hogs  are  allowed  to  gather  it  themselves 
than  if  it  is  husked  and  fed  to  them  in  the  yard.     If  hogs  are 
not  turned  into  too  large  fields,  the  waste  is  not  great;  in 
fact,  they  will  usually  gather  the  corn  as  clean  as  a  man. 
The  better  results  which  are  sometimes  obtained  from  this 
method  are  due,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  that  hogs  are  better 


'HOGGING   OFF"    CORN 


87 


contented  when  allowed  to  run  at  will  in  the  corn  field  than 
when  confined,  and  also  because  the  corn  does  not  become 
dry  and  hard  and  is  therefore  a  little  easier  for  the  hogs  to 
masticate  than  is  the  case  after  it  has  been  husked  for  some 
time. 

When  corn  is  to  be  hogged  off,  it  is  a  very  common  prac- 
tice to  sow  rape,  cowpeas,  or  some  other  crop  between  the 


Fig.  29.     Rape  in   corn,    a   good   combination   where 
the  crop  ia  to  be  "hogged  off." 


88  FIELD  CROPS 

corn  rows  just  previous  to  the  last  cultivation  of  the  crop  and 
allow  the  hogs  to  pasture  the  green  feed  thus  produced  with 
the  corn.  This  makes  a  more  balanced  ration  than  the  corn 
alone,  and  adds  to  the  total  feed  produced  to  the  acre. 

FODDER  CORN 

101.  Definitions.     Fodder  corn  is  corn  that  is  grown  for 
the  purpose  of  feeding  the  whole  plant — stalks,  leaves,  and 
ears — to  live  stock.     Such  corn  is  usually  planted  more 
thickly  than  ordinary  field  corn,  so  that  the  stalks  will  be 
comparatively  fine  and  the  ears  few  and  small.     Bundle 
corn  is  corn  that  has  been  grown  for  ears,  but  cut,  shocked, 
and  fed  out  of  the  bundle  in  the  same  manner  as  fodder  corn 
is  usually  fed;  such  corn  usually  has  coarser  stalks  and  a 
larger  proportion  of  ears  than  fodder  corn.     Corn  stover 
is  the  stalks  of  corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  husked 
and  the  stalks  left  to  be  fed  out  of  the  bundle  or  shredded. 

102.  Value  of  Corn  Fodder.     Corn  is  such  a  thrifty, 
quick-growing  plant  that  there  are  few  other  common  crops 
which  can  compete  with  it  in  the  total  production  of  feed  to 
the  acre.     Owing  to  its  quick,   vigorous  growth  and  its 
palatability,   corn  is  very  largely  used  as  a  forage  crop. 
Corn  fodder,  properly  grown,  is  more  succulent  than  corn 
stover  or  hay.     On  this  account  it  is  more  palatable  than 
these  common  dry  feeds,  and  is  an  excellent  product  to  use 
as  part  of  the  roughage  for  live  stock.     It  is  worth  $6  a  ton 
for  feeding  when  clover  hay  is  worth  $8.80  a  ton.    A  fair 
yield  is  from  2J^  to  4  tons  to  the  acre.     Larger  yields  are 
sometimes  obtained  on  very  productive  land. 

103.  Importance.    So  far  as  its  feeding  value  and  yield 
are  concerned,  fodder  corn  is  an  excellent  crop  to  grow,  but 
on  the  general  farm  it  does  not  have  a  very  large  place,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  a  soil-building  crop  as  are  clover, 


USES  OF  FODDER  CORN 


89 


timothy,  alfalfa,  and  the  other  grasses  that  are  usually  grown 
for  forage.  On  most  farms  where  as  much  of  these  grass 
crops  is  grown  as  is  advisable  in  a  good  system  of  cropping 
and  where  a  maximum  quantity  of  corn  for  grain  or  silage 
is  produced,  there  is  usually  enough  roughage  so  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  grow  fodder  corn.  It  has,  however,  great 
value  as  a  catch  crop..  In  years  when  one  has  failed  to  get 


Fig.  30.  The  corn  binder  for  cutting  corn  for  fodder  or  silage.  Much 
corn  is  also  cut  by  hand  or  by  some  form  of  cutter  which  does  not  bind 
it  into  bundles. 

a  catch  of  grass  or  when,  owing  to  drouth,  the  hay  crop  is 
short,  it  is  often  advisable  to  plant  enough  fodder  corn  to 
insure  sufficient  roughage  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
live  stock  kept  on  the  farm. 

104.  Production  of  Fodder  Corn.  Fodder  corn  will 
grow  on  soil  that  will  produce  any  of  the  common  farm 
crops,  though  for  its  best  growth  a  warm,  rich,  moist  soil  is 


90  FIELD  CROPS 

desirable.  It  is  often  sown  in  low  places  that  can  not  be 
seeded  early  in  the  season.  The  seed  bed  for  fodder  corn 
should  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  for  corn  that  is 
grown  for  ears.  Fodder  corn  is  usually  planted  in  single  or 
double  drills  from  36  to  44  inches  apart,  at  the  rate  of  from  20 
to  50  pounds  to  the  acre.  It  may  be  planted  at  almost  any 
time  in  the  season  up  to  midsummer,  but  it  is  desirable  to 
plant  it  early  enough  so  that  the  plants  can  practically  reach 
maturity  before  frost. 

As  fodder  corn  is  usually  planted  later  in  the  season  than 
field  corn,  it  grows  very  rapidly  and  quickly  shades  the 
ground.  It  is  therefore  not  generally  necessary  to  give 
much  cultivation.  It  is  a  very  common  practice  to  harrow 
the  field  after  it  is  planted  and  then  cultivate  it  two  or  three 
times  until  the  corn  shades  the  ground  sufficiently  to  check 
the  growth  of  weeds  and  retard  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 

105.  Harvesting.  Fodder  corn  is  commonly  harvested 
with  a  corn  binder  when  the  crop  shows,  either  by  the  small 
ears  that  it  may  have  produced  or  by  the  drying  of  the 
leaves,  that  it  is  practically  mature.  If  the  weather  is 
exceedingly  wet,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  shock  first  in 
small  shocks  and  later  to  put  two  or  three  of  the  small  shocks 
into  one  larger  one.  In  shocking,  it  is  desirable  to  employ 
some  system.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  set  up  two  pairs  of  bundles, 
all  leaning  together,  then  to  set  bundles  around  these  in  a 
systematic  manner  until  from  12  to  24  have  been  put  into 
the  shock.  Care  should  be  used  to  put  approximately  the 
same  number  of  bundles  on  each  side  and  to  set  them  up 
firm  and  snug  so  that  the  shock  will  be  evenly  balanced  and 
will  stand  straight.  The  shocks  should  be  tied  securely 
near  the  top  to  help  in  keeping  out  the  rain  and  to  prevent 
them  from  being  blown  down. 


THE   VALVE  OF  CORN  SILAQE  91 

106.  Stacking.     Owing  to  the  large  percentage  of  mois- 
ture contained  in  fodder  corn,  it  is  seldom  possible  to  stack 
it  so  that  it  will  keep,  except  in  very  cold  weather.    This  is 
one  of  the  objectionable  features  of  the  crop.     It  may  be  set 
on  end  one  bundle  deep  in  a  mow  or  shed  with  perfect  safety, 
but  it  is  not  safe  to  stack  it  or  to  put  it  in  large  piles.    The 
method   most   commonly   followed   is    to    reshock   in  the 
field  into  large,  well-made 

shocks  when  it  is  cured 
and  to  haul  it  to  the  feed 
lots  only  as  used. 

CORN  FOR  SILAGE 

107.  Importance.  Corn 
silage  is  coming  to  play  a 
more  and  more  prominent 
part  in   the   economy   of 
the    farm.     It    is    pretty 
thoroughly  understood 
that,  because  of  the  im- 
portant  relation    of    live 

,       1      ,            M/;     4.T4-        ±U  Fig-   31.     Filling   the   silo.     The     whole 

StOCK    tO   SOU  tertlllty,    the  C0rn  plant  is  preserved  for  feeding   without 

i  .    v       ,    j.               f                           i  waste.     The    silo    is    becoming    more    and 

highest  type  OI  permanent  more  important  wherever  corn  is  grown. 

agriculture    can   only    be 

applied  on  the  majority  of  farms  when  a  reasonable 
number  of  domestic  animals  is  kept.  If  live  stock  is  to 
be  kept  on  the  farm  profitably,  it  is  highly  important 
that  it  be  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  feed  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  and  that  this  feed  be  as  economical 
as  is  consistent  with  good  feeding.  No  feed  has  as  yet 
been  discovered  that  gives  better  results,  under  ordinary 
farm  conditions,  than  that  from  pastures;  but  pastures 
supply  feed  for  live  stock  only  a  portion  of  the  year,  and  can 


92  FIELD  CROPS 

not  always  be  relied  upon  even  then.  The  next  cheapest 
feed,  so  far  as  cost  of  production  is  concerned,  is  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay,  and  this  is  followed  by  corn  fodder. 

Neither  pasture  nor  the  ordinary  hay  crops  are  as  certain 
to  yield  profitably  as  is  a  well-cultivated  corn  crop.  Stock 
raisers  are  rapidly  realizing  that  corn  is  the  most  reliable 
grain  and  roughage  crop  and  that  the  most  satisfactory 
way  of  storing  a  good  portion  of  this  crop,  where  it  is  to  be 
fed  on  the  farm,  is  by  means  of  a  silo.  The  silo  has  been 
shown  to  help  very  effectively  in  cases  of  shortage  of  pasture 
and  failure  of  clover  and  other  hay  crops.  Corn  silage  is  not 
only  a  sure  crop,  but  it  is  a  very  palatable,  nutritious,  suc- 
culent feed,  that  supplies,  throughout  the  winter  and  during 
dry  times  in  the  summer,  much  the  same  feed  conditions  as 
are  afforded  by  good  pastures. 

108.  The  Production  of  Silage.     Corn  for  silage  may  be 
grown  on  any  good,  tillable  land,  especially  any  land  that  is 
well  adapted  to  the  production  of  an  ordinary  corn  crop. 
Corn  for  silage  is  most  commonly  grown  in  the  same  manner 
as  corn  for  grain,  though  those  who  have  had  most  experience 
with  silage  plant  about  one-half  thicker,  either  in  drills  or  in 
hills,  than  for  ear  corn.     The  cultivation  of  corn  for  silage  is 
the  same  as  that  commonly  given  to  corn  for  grain. 

The  varieties  of  corn  that  seem  to  give  best  results  in 
the  production  of  silage  in  a  given  locality  are  usually  those 
that  give  the  best  yields  of  grain.  As  good  silage  can  be 
made  only  from  corn  that  is  practically  mature,  it  is  unwise 
to  use  any  of  the  large,  coarse-growing  varieties  in  sections 
where  they  can  not  complete  their  growth. 

109.  Harvesting   for   Silage.    When   the   corn   is   ripe 
enough  to  cut  and  shock  for  ear  corn,  or  when  the  ears  are 
well  dented  but  before  the  leaves  and  stalks  are  dry,  it  is 
ready  for  the  silo.     It  is  commonly  cut  with  a  corn  binder, 


THE  VALVE  OF  SILAGE  93 

then  it  is  loaded  onto  low  wagons  and  hauled  at  once  to  the 
cutter,  where  it  is  cut  into  small  bits  and  blown  into  the  silo. 
The  silo  is  simply  an  air-tight  receptacle,  built  strong  enough 
to  hold  this  heavy,  green  material. 

Nothing  is  applied  to  silage  to  keep  it.  It  is  simply  pro- 
tected from  the  air,  hence  it  cannot  spoil.  The  surface  of 
the  silage  and  any  parts  that  may  be  exposed,  as  by  a  hole 
in  the  silo,  are  quickly  sealed  over  by  the  molding  of  a  few 
inches  of  the  corn. 

110.  Cost  and  Feeding  Value.    Statistics  gathered  in 
Minnesota  show  that  it  costs  from  $18  to  $20  an  acre,  includ- 
ing rent,  to  grow  and  store  silage.     A  fair  yield  is  from  9  to  12 
tons  to  the  acre.    Silage  may  be  fed  to  all  classes  of  live 
stock,  and  is  highly  prized  by  all  who  have  had  experience 
with  a  good  quality  of  it.     Compared  with  clover  hay,  a  ton 
of  silage  is  worth  $3  when  clover  hay  is  worth  $8.80.     With 
clover  hay  at  this  price,  or  with  bran  at  $20  per  ton,  an  acre 
of  average  corn  stored  in  the  silo  is  worth  approximately  $30. 

111.  Stacking  Silage.    In  some  parts  of  the  country 
where  silos  have  not  yet  been  introduced,  corn  grown  for 
silage  is  cut  and  stacked  green  out  of  doors  with  very  good 
results.     The  stacks  are  usually  made  round,  with  the  butts 
of  the  bundles  out.     The  ears  may  be  stripped  from  the  outer 
row  of  bundles  and  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  stack  so 
that  the  butts  can  be  packed  more  closely  together'.     The 
stacks  should  be  made  as  solid  as  possible  and  should  be  12 
or  more  feet  in  diameter  and  12  or  more  feet  high.     The 
higher  the  stacks  are,  if  built  so  that  they  will  not  lean,  the 
better.     When  these  stacks  are  built  they  are  usually,  though 
not  always,  weighted  down  with  earth  or  stones  or  with 
patented  compressors  to  facilitate  their  settling. 

The  outer  part  of  the  stack  spoils  by  molding  and  thus 
seals  up  the  inner  part  and  provides  the  same  conditions 


94  FIELD  dROPS 

afforded  by  a  silo.  The  outer  spoiled  part  is  cut  off  and  only 
the  inner  part  or  good  silage  is  fed.  While  considerable  corn 
is  wasted  by  this  method,  it  still  provides  a  cheap  form  of 
succulent  feed  and  does  very  well  until  such  time  as  silos 
may  be  afforded. 

MARKETING  AND  RETURNS 

112.  Marketing.  Corn  is  commonly  sold  from  the  farm 
on  the  ear,  though  it  is  sometimes  shelled  before  it  is 
marketed.  The  usual  practice  is  to  sell  the  ear  corn  to  local 
dealers,  who  store  it  or  shell  and  ship  it.  Corn  is  generally 
shelled  before  it  is  shipped,  because  shelled  corn  occupies 
only  about  one-half  as  much  space  as  the  same  quantity  of 
ear  corn.  No  treatment  is  ordinarily  given  to  the  grain  on 
the  farm;  it  is  sold  as  it  comes  from  the  crib.  When  shipped 
from  the  local  buyer  to  the  central  market,  some  of  the  dirt 
is  taken  out  in  shelling,  but  no  large  proportion  of  it  is 
removed.  On  account  of  the  method  of  harvesting,  however, 
corn  is  usually  quite  free  from  weed  seeds  and  other  foreign 
matter.  A  large  part  of  the  crop  is  fed  on  the  farms  or  in  the 
communities  where  it  is  produced.  The  average  shipments 
out  of  the  county  where  it  is  grown  do  not  exceed  one- 
fifth  of  the  crop.  The  states  in  which  the  largest  percent- 
ages of  shipments  are  recorded  are  Illinois,  Nebraska,  Ohio, 
and  Indiana. 

The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn  is  56  pounds ; 
of  corn  on  the  ear,  70  pounds.  If  corn  is  sold  within  a  short 
time  after  it  is  harvested,  while  it  still  contains  a  high  per- 
centage of  moisture,  it  is  customary  to  allow  75  or  even  80 
pounds  to  the  bushel.  Ordinary  air-dry  corn  will  shell 
about  56  pounds  of  grain  to  70  pounds  of  ears,  but  an  extra 
good  sample  may  shell  as  much  as  60  pounds. 


MARKET  GRADES  OF  CORN  95 

113.  Market  Grades.  The  grades  of  corn  recognized 
by  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade,  the  principal  terminal 
market,  are  as  follows: 

No.  1  yellow  corn  shall  be  yellow,  sound,  dry,  plump,  and  well 
cleaned. 

No.  2  yellow  corn  shall  be  90  per  cent  yellow,  dry,  reasonably 
clean,  but  not  plump  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3  yellow  corn  shall  be  90  per  cent  yellow,  reasonably  dry  and 
reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  yellow  corn  shall  be  90  per  cent  yellow,  badly  damaged, 
musty,  or  very  dirty. 

No.  1  white  corn  shall  be  white,  sound,  dry,  plump,  and  well 
cleaned. 

No.  2  white  corn  shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  reasonably  clean 
but  not  plump  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3  white  corn  shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  reasonably  dry  and 
reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  white  corn  shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  badly  damaged,  musty, 
or  very  dirty. 

No.  1  corn  shall  be  mixed  corn  of  choice  quality,  sound,  dry,  and 
well  cleaned. 

No.  2  corn  shall  be  mixed  corn,  dry  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not 
good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3  corn  shall  be  mixed  corn,  reasonably  dry  and  reasonably 
clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  corn  shall  be  mixed  corn  that  is  badly  damaged,  damp, 
musty,  or  very  dirty. 

The  greater  part  of  the  corn  which  reaches  the  Chicago 
market  is  No.  2  and  No.  3  yellow,  the  quantities  of  these  two 
grades  usually  being  about  the  same.  Three  or  four  times 
as  much  yellow  as  white  corn  is  marketed  in  Chicago.  The 
usual  difference  in  feeding  value  between  No.  2  and  No.  3 
corn  is  about  2  cents  a  bushel,  but  the  difference  in  market 
price  may  considerably  exceed  this  figure.  The  lowest 
price  recorded  for  No.  2  corn  on  the  Chicago  market  in  the 
ten  years  from  1901  to  1910  was  36  cents  in  1901;  the  highest, 


96 


FIELD  CROPS 


88  cents  in  1902.  The  average  of  the  annual  lowest  prices 
for  the  ten  years  was  44.4  cents;  of  the  highest  prices,  68 J 
cents. 

114.  Exports.  Though  the  United  States  produces 
about  three-fourths  of  the  world's  crop  of  corn,  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  crop  is  exported.  In  the  five  years  from 
Jan.  1,  1905  to  Jan.  1,  1910,  the  average  annual  exportation 
of  corn  from  the  United  States  was  76,420,000  bushels,  while 


Fig.  32.    Reid's  Yellow  Dent  corn,  a  large,  yellow  variety  which  has  been   care- 
fully selected    for  many  years. 

Argentina  exported  79,128,000  bushels  annually  during  this 
period.  No  other  country  was  a  considerable  factor  in  the 
world's  trade  in  corn,  the  two  just  named  furnishing  about 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  quantity.  The  exportation  from 
the  United  States  represents  only  about  3  per  cent  of  the  pro- 
duction during  the  period  just  mentioned,  while  the  annual 
exportations  since  1901  have  not  exceeded  4.4  per  cent  of  the 
crop  in  any  one  year  and  have  fallen  as  low  as  1.4  per  cent. 


COST  OF  PRODUCTION 


97 


The  tendency  is  for  the  percentage  exported  to  decrease 
rather  than  to  increase.  The  principal  ports  from  which 
corn  is  shipped  are  New  York,  Baltimore,  New  Orleans  and 
Galveston. 

115.  Cost  of  Production.  The  best  available  informa- 
tion on  the  cost  of  producing  corn  is  that  contained  in  the 
April,  1911,  Crop  Reporter,  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  this 
number,  the  reports  of  about  6,000  correspondents  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  are  tabulated.  The  figures  are  for  the 
cost  of  producing  corn  in  1909.  The  average  of  all  the  reports 
shows  that  it  cost  $12.27  to  produce  an  acre  of  corn  in  that 
year;  as  the  average  yield  was  32.4  bushels,  the  bushel  cost 
was  37.9  cents.  The  items  which  went  to  make  up  this  cost 
of  $12.27  to  the  acre  were:  Fertilizers,  62  cents;  prepara- 
tion of  land,  $2.11;  seed,  24  cents;  planting,  44  cents;  culti- 
vation, $2.24;  gathering,  $2.20;  miscellaneous,  47  cents; 
land  rental  or  interest,  $3.75.  The  relative  importance  of 
these  items  naturally  varies  somewhat  in  different  sections 
of  the  United  States,  the  fertilizer  cost  being  high  in  the  East 
and  South  and  little  or  nothing  in  the  Central  and  Western 
states,  while  other  items  show  some  differences.  The  cost, 
value,  and  difference  between  value  and  cost  for  the  different 
sections  are  shown  in  Table  V. 

Table  V.  Acre  cost  of  production  of  corn,  acre  value,  and  differ- 
ence between  value  and  cost  for  the  United  States  and  for  the 
different  sections  of  the  country  in  the  year  1909. 


Section. 

Acre  cost. 

Acre  value. 

Difference. 

North  Atlantic  states 

Dollars 

2044 

Dollars 
30  17 

Dollars 

9  73 

South  Atlantic  states 

1443 

22  10 

767 

South  Central  states  

11  29 

17  14 

585 

East  North  Central  states  ...   . 

14.07 

2343 

936 

West  North  Central  states  

10.58 

17.73 

7.15 

Far  Western  states 

11  66 

2042 

8  76 

The  United  States.  .  . 

1227 

2009 

782 

98  FIELD  CROPS 

As  the  table  shows,  there  was  not  a  wide  range  between 
the  different  sections  in  the  matter  of  difference  between 
cost  and  value,  the  extremes  being  $5.85  to  the  acre  in  the 
South  Central  and  $9.73  in  the  North  Atlantic  states. 
Where  the  cost  of  production  was  highest,  in  the  North 
Atlantic  states,  the  difference  between  value  and  cost  was 
also  highest,  due  to  high  yield  and  high  price  to  the  bushel. 
In  Illinois  and  Iowa,  the  two  states  of  largest  production,  the 
respective  figures  were:  Acre  cost,  $13.25  and  $12.39; 
bushel  cost,  31  and  30  cents;  value  less  cost,  $9.38  and  $8.43. 

116.  Acre  Value.     The  average  annual  value  of  an  acre 
of  corn  for  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years  from  1901  to 
1910  was  $12.53.     The  highest  value  is  shown  in  the  North 
Atlantic  states,  $21.97  to  the  acre.     The  Far  Western  states 
ranked  next  with  $18,06  and  the  South  Central  followed  with 
$15.49.     There  was  little  difference  in  cost  in  the  South 
Atlantic  states,  the  North  Central  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  the  North  Central  west  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
the  respective  figures  being  $11.42,  $11.30,  and  $11.41  to 
the  acre.     The  average  acre  value  in  Illinois  for  the  ten 
years  was  $14.75,  and  in  Iowa,  $12.71. 

CORN  IN  CROP  ROTATIONS 

117.  Corn  Decreases  Fertility.     It  is  well  known  that 
if  a  piece  of  land  that  has  been  cropped  to  grain  for  a  number 
of  years  is  planted  to  corn  and  cultivated  well,  better  crops 
of  grain  will  be  produced  on  the  field  the  following  year  or 
years.     This  has  led  to  the  belief  that  corn  is  a  soil-building 
crop.     Tests  conducted  at  many  experiment  stations  where 
corn  has  been  grown  on  the  same  plat  continuously  for  a 
number  of  years  without  fertilizer  show  that  the  productivity 
of  the  plats  has  gradually  decreased  until  very  poor  yields 
result.     In   fact,    these   experiments    show   that   the   pro- 


THE  EFFECT  OF  CULTIVATION  99 

ductivity  of  the  soil  is  more  rapidly  decreased  by  corn  than 
by  grain  crops.  These  two  facts  seem  somewhat  contrary 
but  when  studied  prove  to  be  just  what  might  reasonably 
be  expected. 

118.  Cultivation  Liberates  Plant  Food.  As  stated  else- 
where, plant  food  is  made  soluble  or  available  for  plants  very 
largely  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter.  Vege- 
table matter  can  decompose  or  rot  only  when  in  the  presence 


Fig.  33.  Ear  of  Boone  County,  White  corn.  A  popular  white  dent  variety 
in  southern  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa  and  northern  Missouri.  Grown  to. 
some  extent  in  the  South. 

of  air  and  moisture.  Hay  in  the  mow  does  not  rot  because  it 
is  kept  dry.  Silage  in  the  silo  does  not  rot  because  air  is 
kept  away  from  it.  Vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  that  is, 
manure  and  the  roots  and  stems  of  plants,  will  naturally 
decompose  more  rapidly  if  proper  conditions  of  air  and 
moisture  are  maintained  than  when  such  conditions  are  not 
present. 


100  FIELD  CROPS 

The  corn  crop  is  commonly  cultivated  throughout  the 
growing  season.  This  cultivation  aerates  the  soil  and  con- 
serves moisture,  hence  decomposition  takes  place  more 
rapidly  in  a  cultivated  field  than  in  a  field  that  is  not  culti- 
vated. This  rapid  decomposition  caused  by  cultivation 
liberates  large  quantities  of  plant  food.  On  this  account, 
planting  a  field  to  corn  stimulates  the  liberation  of  plant 
food  and  naturally  leaves  the  soil  richer  in  available  plant 
food  for  succeeding  crops.  This  may  easily  account  for 
the  larger  yields  which  usually  follow  cropping  a  field  for 
one  year  to  corn.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  if  the  field  is 
planted  to  corn  year  after  year,  the  supply  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter will  be  quite  rapidly  depleted,  so  that  the  soil  will  soon 
fail  to  respond  to  the  stimulation  of  cultivation.  This 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  when  a  field  is  planted  for  a  number 
of  years  in  succession,  it  rapidly  decreases  in  productivity. 

119.  Importance  of  Corn  in  the  Rotation.    Owing  to  the 
stimulating  and  the  cleaning  effects  of  cultivation  on  the  soil 
and  the  influence  the  crop  has  on  the  number  of  live  stock 
kept,  by  furnishing  an  abundance  of  cheap  and  desirable 
feed,  corn  has  a  very  important  relation  to  the  cropping 
system  of  the   farm.     Diversification,   rotation   of   crops, 
and  the  keeping  of  live  stock  usually  lead  to  increased  pro- 
duction and  larger  farm  profits. 

120.  Rotations  which  Include  Corn.     One  of  the  very 
common  and  desirable  rotations  for  corn  is  the  following: 
First  year,  grain;  second  year,  clover;  third  year,   corn. 
This  rotation  is  giving  good  results,  especially  on  some  of  the 
lighter  soils.    On  heavier  soils,  there  is  danger  if  the  corn 
and  clover  are  fed  on  the  farm  and  the  manure  returned  to 
the  land,  that  the  soil  will  become  so  rich  that  the  grain 
crop  following  the  corn  will  lodge.     It  is,  however,  an  excel- 
lent system  of  rotation  for  building  up  run-down  soils;  when 


CORN  IN  THd  ROTATION 


101 


they  are  so  built  up  that  difficulty  is  experienced  in  the 
lodging  of  grain  crops,  the  rotation  may  be  made  longer  by 
growing  corn  two  years  in  succession.  This  would  make  the 
rotation  a  four-year  one,  as  follows:  First  year,  grain; 
second  year,  clover;  third  and  fourth  years,  corn.  Owing 
to  the  strong  feeding  habits  of  the  crop  and  to  the  rapid 
decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  which  takes  place  in  corn 
fields,  two  years  of  corn  will  usually  reduce  the  available 


Fig.  34.    Minnesota  No.  13,  a  type  of  yellow  dent  corn  adapted  to  the  Northern 
states,  improved  by  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

plant  food  in  the  soil  sufficiently  to  permit  the  growth  of  the 
proper  grain  crop  without  danger  from  lodging. 

Corn  may  be  used  in  innumerable  combinations  in  rota- 
tions, depending  entirely  upon  the  needs  of  the  farm.  A 
four-year  rotation  adapted  to  a  farm  on  which  it  is  desired 
to  grow  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  grain,  might  be  as 
follows:  First  year,  grain;  second  year,  clover;  third  year, 
corn;  fourth  year,  grain.  If  desirable,  another  grain  crop 


102  FI'E£D  CROPS 

might  be  added,  which  would  make  a  five-year  rotation  with 
one  year  of  corn,  one  year  of  clover,  and  three  years  of  grain. 
Unless  considerable  quantities  of  fertilizer  were  applied,  such 
a  rotation  would  by  no  means  maintain  the  productivity  of 
the  soil.  Another  practical  five-year  rotation  including 
corn  is:  First  year,  grain;  second  year,  meadow;  third  year, 
pasture;  fourth  year,  corn;  fifth  year,  grain. 

In  the  Southern  states,  corn  ranks  second  only  to  cotton 
in  importance.  These  two  crops  are  almost  always  included 
in  any  rotation  which  is  devised  for  this  section.  Cowpeas 
are  quite  generally  grown  to  add  nitrogen  and  are  sometimes 
plowed  under  to  increase  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 
They  are  often  planted  with  the  corn,  either  in  the  rows  or 
between  them  at  the  last  cultivation.  A  very  good  rotation 
for  the  South  is:  First  year,  corn  and  cowpeas;  second 
year,  cotton  followed  by  winter  grain;  third  year,  grain, 
followed  by  cowpeas  for  hay. 

(See  also  Chapter  XXVI  .  for  other  rotations.) 

DISEASES  OF  CORN 

121.  Smut.  Corn  smut  is  well  known  to  everyone 
familiar  with  corn;  in  some  years,  when  conditions  are 
favorable,  considerable  damage  is  "done  by  it.  It  appears 
as  black,  slimy  masses,  which  may  be  on  the  stalks,  leaves, 
tassels,  or  ears.  Corn  smut  is  a  parasitic  plant  which  lives 
on  the  juices  of  the  corn  plant,  and  in  this  way  reduces  the 
total  valuable  product  of  the  crop.  The  smut  masses  which 
appear  on  the  surface  are  made  up  of  myriads  of  spores 
by  which  the  disease  is  reproduced.  These  spores  are 
capable  of  living  over  winter  in  the  soil  or  in  manure  piles. 
They  may  even  multiply  in  the  manure  under  favorable 
conditions  and  then  be  spread  on  the  soil  with  it.  When 
they  start  to  grow  in  the  spring,  the  smut  plants  they  pro- 


DISEASES  OF   CORN  103 

duce  attack  the  young  corn  plants,  sending  their  mycelia 
into  the  tissues.  Smut  may  attack  corn  at  any  time  during 
the  growing  season,  but  it  usually  appears  most  abundantly 
when  the  plants  are  growing  rapidly  and  are  consequently 
tender. 

122.  Treatment.    There   is   no   method  of  seed   treat- 
ment that  will  prevent  smut,  as  the  spores  are  not  carried 
to  any  great  extent  by  the  seed  corn.     Some  of  the  practical 
means  at  hand  of  checking  this  disease  are  to  remove  the 
smutted  parts  of  the  corn  plants  from  the  field  and  burn  them, 
and  to  use  care  to  prevent  the  smut  spores  from  getting  into 
the  manure.     They  usually  get  into  the  manure  through 
feeding  smutted  stalks  to  cattle.     Rotation  of  crops  will 
have  a  tendency  to  decrease  the  prevalence  of  smut.     Like- 
wise, the  application  of  manure  to  grass  land  a  year  or  so 
in  advance  of  planting  the  field  to  corn  will  have  a  tendency 
to  reduce  the  infection  from  the  manure. 

123.  Feeding  Smutted  Corn.    Many  people  have  thought 
that  the  "  cornstalk  disease,"  which  sometimes  attacks  cattle 
that  are  feeding  in  stalk  fields,  was  caused  by  the  eating  of 
smut.     Experiments  have  shown  that  it  is  due  to  some  other 
cause,  since  quite  large  quantities  of  smut  have  been  fed  to 
cattle,  as  much  as  several  pounds  a  day  to  each  animal, 
without  any  detrimental  results.     These  experiments  indi- 
cate that  there  is  some  food  value  in  the  smut  masses  and 
that  smutted  stalks  may  be  fed  without  danger. 

124.  Bacterial   Diseases.     Corn   is   subject    to    several 
bacterial  diseases  but  the  damage  done  by  them  is  not 
serious  and  they  need  not  be  discussed. 

INSECTS  AFFECTING  CORN 

125.  Wireworms.     Wireworms,  which  are  the  larvae  of 
the  click  beetle,  sometimes  do  serious  damage  to  corn  for  a 


104  FIELD  CROPS 

year  or  so  following  the  breaking  up  of  sod  land.  The 
beetles  deposit  their  eggs  in  sod  land,  and  the  following  spring 
the  eggs  hatch  in  the  form  of  small,  reddish-brown,  shiny 
worms.  These  worms  live  in  the  soil  for  a  couple  of  years 
before  they  change  into  the  beetle  form.  On  this  account 
they  give  trouble  longer  than  do  cutworms. 

Treatment.  The  most  effective  manner  of  combating 
these  worms  is  fall  plowing,  which  disturbs  the  eggs  and  con- 
sequently causes  many  of  them  to  be  destroyed.  However, 
this  is  not  entirely  effective,  and  if  trouble  is  experienced 
with  them  it  is  often  desirable  to  grow  grain  or  other  crops 
for  a  year  or  two  on  the  fields  before  planting  to  corn.  The 
wireworms  attack  the  grain  crops,  but  because  there  are  so 
many  more  plants  than  in  a  field  of  corn  they  do  not  often 
cause  serious  damage. 

126.  Cutworms.  Cutworms  are  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon enemies  of  the  corn  crop.  Like  wireworms,  they  are 
common  only  in  or  near  sod  land.  They  are  usually  grayish- 
brown  in  color,  and  are  from  1  to  1  }/±  inches  long.  There  are, 
however,  many  different  kinds.  Cutworms  attack  the  corn 
plants  at  night  and  cut  them  off  just  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Fields  of  corn  are  often  completely  destroyed 
by  them. 

Treatment.  Fall  plowing,  as  suggested  for  wireworms, 
is  somewhat  effective  with  cutworms,  though  they  are  not 
entirely  controlled  by  this  treatment.  Thorough  cultiva- 
tion until  corn  planting  time  is  also  effective,  as  many  of  the 
worms  are  injured  by  the  cultivation,  and  if  nothing  is  allowed 
to  grow  they  have  difficulty  in  getting  food.  Deferring 
planting  for  two  to  three  weeks  is  an  excellent  preventive 
as  the  most  active  season  for  the  worms  is  during  the  early 
growing  period  of  the  corn  crop.  The  most  efficient  method 
of  control  is  rotation  of  crops,  with  fields  left  in  grass  not 


CORN  INSECTS  105 

more  than  two  years  in  succession.  Such  sod  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  infested  with  cutworms  as  sod  of  longer  standing. 
Poison  is  sometimes  used,  though  it  is  much  more  effective 
and  practical  in  the  garden  than  in  the  field.  A  mixture  of  1 
pound  of  Paris  green  and  30  pounds  of  bran,  scattered  in 
little  piles  near  the  hills  of  corn,  will  destroy  many  of  the 
worms.  A  little  syrup  or  sugar  added  to  the  above  mixture 
increases  its  palatability  and  makes  it  more  effective. 

127.  White  Grubs.    The  white  grub,   very   commonly 
seen  when  plowing  land,  especially  in  the  spring,  is  like- 
wise a  serious  pest  to  the  corn  plant.     These  grubs,  like  wire- 
worms,  live  in  the  worm  stage  for  two  years,  and  conse- 
quently trouble  from  them  may  appear  in  two  succeeding 
crops  on  the  same  field.     They  attack  the  roots  of  the  corn 
and  very  seriously  check  its  growth.     The  same  treatment 
as  for  wireworms  is  effective. 

128.  The  Corn  Billbug.    The  corn  billbug  is  a  small 
black  bug  with  a  long  snout  or  bill.     This  bug  works  on  the 
leaves  of  corn,  attacking  the  small  leaves  before  they  have 
unfolded.     The  long  bill  enables  the  bug  to  pierce  through 
the  rolled  leaf,  and  when  the  leaf  spreads  out  the  injury 
appears  as  a  series  of  holes  side  by  side  across  it. 

Treatment.  There  is  no  treatment  effective  after  the 
bugs  have  attacked  the  corn,  but  their  attack  may  be  checked 
by  fall  plowing  and  by  deferring  the  planting  of  corn  two  or 
three  weeks,  or  until  the  bugs  are  past  the  stage  at  which 
they  injure  the  plants. 

129.  Corn  Root  Louse.    The  corn  root  louse  or  corn 
aphis  often  seriously  injures  the  corn  crop.     These  are  very 
tiny  bluish-green  bugs.     They  are  sometimes  called  ants' 
cows,  and  the  ants  perform  many  services  for  them,  helping 
them  to  find  plants  on  which  to  live.    The  ants  are  not 
entirely  unselfish  in  this  matter,  for  they  get  from  these  lice 


106  FIELD  CROPS 

a  fluid  secreted  by  them,  called  honeydew.  These  insects 
affect  only  corn,  and  are  seldom  found  except  in  corn  fields. 
Injury  from  them  becomes  more  severe  as  corn  is  grown 
year  after  year  on  the  same  land. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  for  this  pest  is  rotation  of 
crops,  which  will  provide  for  growing  corn  not  to  exceed  two 
years  in  succession  on  the  same  land.  Fall  plowing  and 
clean  cultivation,  especially  during  the  early  part  of  the 
season  before  corn  is  planted,  are  effective  in  checking  the 
ravages  of  these  insects. 

130.  Chinch  Bugs.  The  chinch  bug,  which  is  common 
only  periodically,  is  most  commonly  known  by  its  attack 
on  grain  fields,  where  its  injury  is  greatest.  Often  entire 
fields  are  cut  down  by  these  insects.  They  live  over  winter 
in  the  adult  stage,  usually  under  rubbish  of  some  kind.  The 
female  emerges  in  the  spring  and  lays  the  eggs,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  young  are  hatched.  The  egg-laying  period  extends 
over  several  weeks,  so  the  young  are  usually  seen  in  all 
stages  of  growth.  They  attack  plants  anywhere  above  the 
ground,  sucking  the  juices  from  them.  As  they  usually 
appear  in  large  numbers,  their  damage  is  very  serious. 
The  adult  is  black  and  white,  usually  not  over  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  in  length.  The  young  are  reddish  in  color,  and  go 
through  various  changes  before  maturity.  Their  attacks 
on  corn  are  usually  after  the  grain  fields  on  which  they  have 
been  living  are  harvested. 

Treatment.  Clean  farming,  that  is,  the  disposal  of  all 
rubbish  on  the  place,  is  effective  because  it  reduces  the  num- 
ber of  suitable  places  in  which  the  insects  may  live  over 
winter.  When  it  is  feared  that  they  are  to  attack  a  corn- 
field, a  strip  a  rod  or  so  wide,  plowed  and  pulverized  to  fine 
dust,  is  effective  in  checking  theii?  progress.  Furrows  are 
often  plowed  about  a  field  and  a  log  dragged  along  the  fur- 


CORN  INSECTS  107 

row  to  make  a  fine  dust  in  it.  The  little  insects,  owing  to  the 
moving  of  the  dust,  have  difficulty  in  crossing  the  furrow. 
Holes  bored  with  a  post  auger  at  intervals  along  the  furrow 
serve  as  efficient  traps  to  catch  large  numbers  of  the  insects. 
They  may  be  killed  in  these  holes  by  burying  them  or  by 
pouring  a  small  quantity  of  kerosene  on  them.  Strips  of  tar 
are  also  effective  in  checking  their  progress.  A  simple 
remedy  is  to  plant  millet  along  the  edge  of  the  cornfield,  or 
even  allow  weeds  to  grow  in  a  few  rows  next  to  the  grain 
field.  This  will  retard  the  advance  of  the  chinch  bugs  into 
the  corn.  They  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  but  this  is  hardly  a  practical  method  of  attack. 

131.  Army  Worm.    The  army  worm  is  a  name  given  to 
certain  types  of  cutworms  when  they  appear  in  large  num- 
bers and  move  from  field  to  field.    They  usually  attack 
plants  later  in  the  season  than  the  common  cutworms,  and 
eat  the  upper  parts  of  the  plants  rather  than  those  just  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground.     Their  progress  in  traveling  from 
one  field  to  another  may  be  checked  by  the  same  methods 
suggested  in  checking  the  chinch  bug.     The  most  effective 
treatment  for  these  worms  is  fall  plowing  and  rotation  of 
crops,  as  suggested  for  the  common  cutworm. 

132.  Corn  Rootworms  are  small,  white  worms  with  brown 
heads;  the  first  segment  is  also  brown.     They  burrow  in  the 
roots  of  corn,  and  very  materially  check  its  growth.     They 
are  found  only  in  corn  fields,  and  usually  get  more  numerous 
in  the  field  year  after  year.     A  rotation  of  crops  which  will 
provide  for  growing  corn  not  to  exceed  two  years  in  suc- 
cession on  the  same  land  is  the  most  effective  remedy. 

133.  Grasshoppers,  well  known  in  every  community, 
sometimes  do  serious  injury  to  corn.     Like  chinch  bugs, 
they  attack  the  corn,  as  a  rule,  only  after  the  other  crops 
have  been  destroyed  or  harvested.     The  edges  of  the  fields 


108  FIELD  CROPS 

next  to  grass  land  or  grain  fields  are  usually  attacked  first. 
Fall  plowing  is  one  of  the  most  effective  methods  of  prevent- 
ing the  ravages  of  grasshoppers.  They  may  be  killed  in 
large  numbers  by  spraying  a  strip  along  the  cornfield  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  5  pounds  to  100 
gallons  of  water.  The  corn  stalks  thus  sprayed  can  not  be 
used  safely  as  feed  for  stock. 

134.  Corn  Earworm.    This  worm  is  usually  found  first 
by  its  attack  on  the  ear  of  corn.    There  are,  however,  three 
generations  of  the  worm  during  one  season,  and  it  is  the  last 
generation  that  does  the  greatest  damage.     It  is  small,  not 
to  exceed  one-half  inch  in  length  and  light  green,  sometimes 
light  brown,  in  color.     Methods  of  combating  the  corn  ear- 
worm  are  not  very  successful,  except  that  fall  plowing  will 
destroy  large  numbers  of  them. 

135.  Grain    Weevil.    Corn    in    storage    is    sometimes 
attacked  by  the  grain  weevil.    These  insects  eat  into  the 
heart  of  the  kernel  and  destroy  the  germ.     In  seed  corn 
they  are  most  effectively  controlled  by  putting  the  corn  in  a 
tight  box,  can,  or  bin,  and  setting  a  shallow  open  dish  of 
carbon  bisulfid  on  top  of  the  corn.    This  can  be  obtained  at 
any  drug  store.    It  evaporates  quickly  and  the  gas,  being 
heavier  than  air,  settles  down  among  the  grains  of  corn  and 
kills  the  insects  in  it.    Care  must  be  taken  not  to  breathe  the 
fumes  of  this  gas.    Large  quantities  of  corn  may  be  treated 
in  the  same  way  if  tight  rooms  can  be  provided. 

136.  Crows  and  Gophers  often  attack  corn  after  it  is 
planted,  digging  up  the  kernels  or  young  plants  and  de- 
stroying them.    The  work  of  these  birds  and  animals  may 
be  checked  to  a  considerable  extent  by  treating  the  seed  corn 
with  tar.    The  corn  is  put  in  a  kettle  slightly  warmed  and 
moistened;  then  tar  is  applied  and  the  corn  stirred,  just 
enough  being  used  to  make  a  very  thin  film  of  tar  about 


THE  USES  OF  CORN  109 

each  kernel.  A  tablespoonful  should  be  sufficient  to  treat  6 
or  8  quarts  of  seed  corn.  After  the  kernels  are  coated  with 
tar,  planting  is  facilitated  by  applying  road  dust,  ashes,  or 
air-slaked  lime,  so  that  the  kernels  will  not  stick  together. 

USES  OF  CORN 

137.  Importance  as  Food.    The  place  corn  has  attained 
as  most  important  of  all  farm  crops  is  due  to  the  quality  and 
variety  of  food  products  it  furnishes  and  to  the  fact  that  no 
other  cereal  crop  can  compete  with  it  successfully  in  the 
quantity  of  food  it  will  produce  to  the  acre  or  to  the  unit  of 
labor  expended. 

Corn  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  both  in  its 
natural  state  and  in  the  form  of  manufactured  products. 
Its  greatest  and  most  common  use  is  in  the  form  of  feed  for 
live  stock.  It  is  used  for  this  purpose  as  grain,  as  roughage 
in  the  forms  of  fodder  corn,  silage,  and  stover,  as  green  feed, 
and  as  a  pasture  crop. 

By  far  the  most  important  part  of  the  corn  plant  is  the 
grain.  Its  value  in  the  United  States  is  greater  than  the 
value  of  any  other  two  farm  crops  produced  and  greater 
than  the  wheat,  oat,  barley,  flax,  rye,  and  tobacco  crops 
combined.  As  a  feed  for  live  stock,  a  pound  of  corn  meal  is 
worth  more  than  a  pound  of  oats,  barley,  or  bran. 

138.  Use  as  Human  Food.    As  food  for  man,  corn  is 
most  largely  used  in  the  form  of  corn  meal,  from  which 
numerous  dishes  are  prepared.     It  is  also  used  as  hominy,  as 
cerealine,  in  the  form  of  green  corn,  canned  corn,  pop  corn, 
starch,  syrup,  corn  flakes,  and  corn  oil.    The  refined  oil  is 
used   for  shortening,   and  sometimes   as   a   substitute  for 
olive  oil. 

139.  Manufactured  Products.     One  product  of  the  corn 
crop  is  canned  green  sweet  corn,  which  represents  an  industry 


110  FIELD 

of  considerable  importance.  Starch  is  a  valuable  product 
manufactured  from  the  grain  of  corn  which  is  used  both  as 
food  and  for  starching  or  stiffening  fabrics.  It  is  likewise 
converted  into  a  form  of  syrup  known  as  corn  syrup.  Corn 
meal  is  the  finely  ground  corn,  largely  used  as  food.  In 
the  manufacture  of  starch  and  corn  meal,  the  germs  of  corn 
are  removed.  These  germs  are  heated  and  pressed  and 
a  valuable  oil  is  extracted  from  them.  This  oil  in  the  crude 
form  is  used  in  painting  and  as  a  lubricant,  and  is  vulcanized 
into  a  cheap  grade  of  rubber.  It  may  also  be  refined  and 
used  as  a  food  product/  Corn  flakes  and  cerealine  are  two 
very  palatable  breakfast  cereals  also  manufactured  from  corn. 
Alcohol  and  distilled  liquors  are  manufactured  largely  from 
this  grain.  The  pith  of  corn  stalks  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives  and  as  a  packing  material  for  battle 
ships.  The  cobs  are  made  into  pipes,  and  the  stalks  are 
now  being  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 
Corn  husks  are  used  for  making  mattresses  and  for  packing. 
140.  By-products.  The  by-products  from  corn  canning 
factories,  the  husks  and  cobs,  are  often  used  in  the  form  of 
silage  or  as  green  feed.  Corn  cake,  a  by-product  left  from 
the  manufacture  of  corn  oil  from  the  germs  of  corn,  is  also 
a  valuable  stock  food.  Gluten  meal,  a  by-product  from 
starch  factories,  is  richer  in  protein  and  considerably  richer 
in  carbohydrates  than  linseed  meal.  It  is  highly  prized  as 
a  stock  food.  Corn  bran,  another  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  corn  meal,  corn  starch,  and  breakfast  foods,  is  a 
valuable  feed  for  stock,  though  it  is  not  as  valuable  pound 
for  pound  as  common  wheat  bran.  It  is  quite  commonly 
mixed  with  gluten  meal,  and  the  mixture  is  then  sold  as 
gluten  feed.  Distillery  slops,  a  watery  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol,  is  of  considerable  importance  as 
stock  food,  though  naturally  it  must  be  fed  locally  as  it  is 


SEED   SELECTION  111 

too  bulky  to  ship  far.     Malt  left  from  distilleries  is  dried 
and  sold  as  distillers'  grains,  a   valuable   live   stock  feed. 

SELECTION  OF  SEED  CORN 

141.  Importance  of  Good  Seed.    One  of  the  important 
factors  in  the  production  of  a  good  crop  of  corn  is  good  seed; 
that  is,  seed  of  the  desired  type,  carefully  selected  from  corn 
adapted  to  the  locality-,  and  stored  so  that  it  will  remain  good. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  possible,  in  nearly  every  com- 
munity, to  obtain  greatly  increased  yields  of  corn  simply 
by  giving  careful  attention  to  the  matter  of  the  selection  and 
the  care  of  the  seed.     While  good  crops  may  be  produced 
from  only  fairly  good  seed  if  soil  and  other  conditions  are 
favorable,  it  is  the  universal  result  that  where  carefully 
selected  seed  is  used,  increased  yields  are  obtained.  Weather 
conditions  are  often  unfavorable  at  planting  time,  and  only 
seed  of  strong  vitality  can  be  depended  upon  to  withstand 
these  unfavorable  conditions  and  send  forth  good,  strong 
plants.     Time  spent  in  selecting  seed  corn  is,  as  a  rule,  the 
most  profitable  that  is  devoted  to  the  corn  crop. 

142.  Quantity   of    Seed   To    Select.     From    fifteen    to 
twenty  ears  of  corn  are  required  to  plant  an  acre.     When 
selecting  corn  by  the  ordinary  field  method,  it  is  not  possible 
to  make  as  careful  a  selection  as  is  desirable  for  the  final  seed 
for  planting.     On  this  account  it  is  recommended  that  at 
least  fifty  ears  of  corn  be  selected  for  each  acre  of  corn  it  is 
planned  to  grow  the  following  year.     This  will  leave  margin 
enough  for  careful  selection  the  following  spring,  and  the 
seed  thus  discarded  can  often  be  sold  to  advantage  or  used 
as  fodder  corn  seed. 

143.  Time  To  Select.     The  time  of  selection  will  naturally 
depend  a  great  deal  upon  the  locality.     Corn  can  gain  nothing 
by  being  left  in  the  field  after  it  is  mature  and  the  sooner  it  is 


112 


FIELD  CROPS 


gathered  and  placed  under  cover  to  dry  out,  where  it  will 
not  be  affected  by  the  weather,  the  better  it  will  be  for  seed 
purposes.  In  the  North,  it  is  extremely  important  that  corn 
be  selected  early  enough  in  the  fall  to  allow  ample  time  for  it 
to  become  dry  before  freezing  weather.  This  usually  means 

that  it  is  necessary  to 
select  corn  just  as  soon 
as  it  is  well  ripened. 

Another  important 
factor  in  favor  of  early 
selection,  especially  in 
the  North,  is  that  one 
may  choose  the  ears 
from  plants  that  have 
a  tendency  to  ripen 
early.  Almost  univer- 
sally, some  ears  and 
plants  mature  from  a 
few  days  to  two  or 
three  weeks  earlier 
than  some  of  the  other 
ears  and  plants.  If  the 
seed  is  selected  from 
these  plants,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  fix  the 
character  of  early 

maturity.  If  the  corn  is  not  selected  until  all  the  plants 
are  mature  or  until  they  have  all  been  killed  by  frost,  it 
is  not  possible  to  tell  the  early-maturing  ears  from  those 
that  matured  later.  If  selection  is  deferred  and  the  season 
happened  to  be  favorable,  so  that  the  corn  continued  to 
grow  for  a  week  or  more  after  the  date  of  the  first  killing 
frost,  ears  might  be  selected  that  matured  eight  or  ten  days 


Fig.  35.     The  kind  of  corn  which  should  not 
be  used  for  seed. 


PRIZE-WINNING  CORN 


113 


3d, 
12 


5s 

3* 


114  FIELD  CROPS 

after  that  date.  Corn  planted  from  such  seed  the  follow- 
ing year  is  likely  to  be  killed  by  frost  before  the  main 
part  of  the  crop  is  matured. 

Another  advantage  of  early  selection,  while  the  plants  are 
all  in  their  normal  condition,  is  that  it  is  possible  at  that 
time  to  give  some  attention  to  the  character  of  the  plant  on 
which  the  ear  grew,  which  is  an  important  factor  in  getting 
the  best  possible  seed  corn. 

144.  How  To  Select.  In  the  North,  it  is  important  to 
select  seed  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  ripened  and  before  it  is 
practical  to  husk  the  crop.  The  following  method  of  selec- 
tion is  commonly  practiced:  Go  into  the  field  from  which 
the  selection  is  to  be  made,  with  a  common  sack  swung  over 
one  shoulder  by  means  of  a  string  so  that  the  open  end  will 
be  directly  in  front  of  the  body  and  so  that  both  hands  will 
be  free  to  use.  Then,  by  walking  between  two  rows,  ears 
of  desirable  appearance  can  be  examined  and  the,  good  ones 
husked  and  put  into  the  sack.  Selection  can  be  made  quite 
rapidly  in  this  way.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  wagon  at  the 
end  of  the  field  into  which  the  sack  may  be  emptied  when  it 
gets  too  heavy  to  carry  comfortably.  One  man  can  easily 
select  five  hundred  ears  of  corn  in  a  day  in  this  way  and  do 
reasonably  careful  work. 

Allowing  fifty  ears  of  this  field-selected  seed  to  each  acre 
which  is  to  be  planted  the  following  spring,  one  would  select 
enough  in  this  manner  in  one  day  to  plant  ten  acres.  Allow- 
ing $2  a  day  for  labor,  the  extra  cost  of  seed  corn  saved  in 
this  manner  will  not  exceed  20  cents  an  acre,  which  is  cer- 
tainly very  reasonable  for  the  better  grade  of  seed  obtained. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  corn  belt,  seed  selection  may 
be  deferred  until  the  main  part  of  the  crop  is  husked.  The 
method  usually  followed  in  selecting  seed  at  this  time  is  to 
have  a  box  fastened  on  the  side  of  the  wagon  box  into  which 


THE  TYPE  OF  EAR  TO  SELECT  115 

the  corn  is  husked,  so  that  whenever  a  desirable  ear  is  found 
it  may  be  put  into  this  small  box  and  kept  separate  for  seed. 

145.  The  Type  To  Select.     One  of  the  laws  of  breeding 
which  is  recognized  by  everyone  familiar  with  either  plants 
or  animals  is  that  like  produces  like.     If  one  wishes  to  grow 
corn  of  any  particular  type  or  quality,  he  can  expect  to  do 
this  only  by  planting  seed  of  that  type  and  quality.    Nearly 
everyone  desires  to  grow  corn  that  yields  well  and  is  of  good 
quality.     To  accomplish  this  result  it  is  necessary  to  select 
seed  ears  of  the  type  known  to  give  satisfactory  yields  of  the 
quality  desired. 

If  one  has  a  variety  of  corn  that  is  larger  than  he  deems 
it  desirable  to  produce  in  his  community,  the  variety  may  be 
made  smaller  by  selecting  ears  of  the  desired  size.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  it  is  thought  advisable  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  corn,  this  may  be  done  by  selecting  larger  ears.  Like- 
wise, any  character  that  is  desired  may  be  fixed  by  per- 
sistently selecting  every  year  ears  of  corn  having  that  char- 
acter. 

146.  Fixing  the  Type  in  Mind.     One  needs  but  to  examine 
an  ordinary  wagon  box  full  of  corn  as  it  is  picked  to  be  con- 
ivnced  of  the  fact  that  there  are  good  and  poor  ears  in  every 
field.     Also,  there  are  usually  a  number  of  good  ears  of  dif- 
ferent types  in  every  lot  of  corn;  for  instance,  there  may  be 
good  ears  of  corn  having  twenty  rows  of  kernels  and  other 
good  ears  having  only  sixteen  rows  of  kernels,  all  coming 
from  the  same  field  or  variety.     In  selecting  seed  corn  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  one  have  the  desired  type  pretty  clearly 
in  mind  and  select  to  that  type  persistently.     It  is  a  good 
plan  to  look  over  a  large  number  of  ears  and  pick  out  one 
that  is  as  near  the  ideal  as  possible.     Keep  this  ear  where  it 
may  be  examined  occasionally  to  keep  clearly  in  mind  the 
type  being  selected. 


116  FIELD  CROPS 

The  Extension  Division  of  the  Iowa  State  College  has 
suggested  four  questions  which  should  always  be  asked 
regarding  each  ear  of  corn  selected.  These  questions  are:. 
(1)  Will  it  yield?  (2)  Will  it  mature?  (3)  Does  it  show 
improvement?  (4)  Will  it  grow?  These  four  simple,  practi- 
cal questions  may  easily  be  kept  in  mind  and  if  all  of  them 
can  be  answered  in  the  affirmative  with  regard  to  each  ear 
of  corn  selected,  one  can  be  reasonably  certain  that  he  is 
saving  good  seed  corn. 

147.  Yield  and  Maturity.  Indications  of  yield  are  size  of 
ear,  depth  of  kernel,  type  of  kernel,  and  proportion  of  corn 
to  cob.  The  importance  of  yield  is  understood  by  all.  Indi- 


Fig.  37.     Butts  of  ears. 

cations  of  maturity  are  firmness  of  the  ear  of  corn  or  firmness 
of  the  kernels  on  the  cob,  the  manner  in  which  the  kernels 
may  be  shelled  from  the  cob,  and  the  firmness  and  char- 
acter of  the  kernel.  The  importance  of  maturity  can  hardly 
be  overestimated.  There  is  nothing  quite  so  discouraging 
in  corn-growing  as  a  crop  of  soft  corn.  Corn  that  is  well 
matured  has  a  considerably  higher  food  value  than  immature 
corn.  Corn  that  is  mature  is  quite  likely  to  keep  throughout 
the  year  and  germinate  strong  the  following  spring,  while 
immature  corn  is  very  likely  to  be  injured  or  greatly  weakened 
for  seed.  The  farmer  who  grows  corn  that  is  practically  cer- 
tain to  mature  may  have  slightly  smaller  yields  in  favorable 


THE  VALUE  OF  GOOD  SEED  117 

years,  but  he  usually  more  than  makes  this  up  by  having  a 
fair  crop  even  in  poor  corn  years,  when  many  others  have 
failures.  In  poor  years  for  corn  production,  when  the  supply 
of  good  corn  is  short,  the  crop  is  worth  more  to  the  bushel 
than  in  good  corn  years,  which  more  than  compensates  for 
the  slightly  smaller  yields  in  specially  favorable  seasons. 

148.  Indications  of  Improvement  in  corn  are  seen  chiefly 
in  the  uniformity  of  the  ears,  just  as  pure-bred  animals  are 
much  more  uniform  in  type  than  scrubs.     If  a  sample  of  corn 
is  fairly  uniform,  it  indicates  that  it  has  been  bred  along  one 
line  for  at  least  several  generations;  by  having  its  characters 
firmly  fixed,  it  is  more  likely  to  reproduce  itself  and  bring 
forth  good  corn  than  is  a  sample  that  lacks  this  quality. 

149.  Indications  of  Strength  of  Germination  are  maturity, 
large  germs,  and  dry,  sound,  bright-looking  kernels.     Such 
indications  are  not  always  reliable  guides  and  the  only 
practical  way  of  being  sure  that  an  ear  or  a  sample  of  corn  will 
germinate  well  is  to  test  it.  (Sees.  74-77). 

150.  The  Value  of  Good  Ears.    The  object  of  the  corn 
grower  is  to  produce  one  good  ear  of  corn  on  each  stalk  and 
to  have  at  least  three  strong  stalks  to  each  hill.    On  an  acre 
of  corn  planted  3  feet    8  inches  apart  each  way,  there  are 
3,240  hills.     If  one  good  10-ounce  ear  of  corn  is  produced  on 
each  hill,  a  yield  of  28.9  bushels  will  be  obtained.    This  is 
2.1  bushels  to  the  acre  more  than  the  average  yield  of  corn 
throughout  the  United  States  during  the  ten  years  from 
1902  to  1911.    A  perfect  stand  with  a  10-ounce  ear  produced 
on  each  of  three  stalks  in  each  hill  would  produce  a  yield  of 
86.7  bushels  to  the  acre,  which  yield  may  be  reasonably 
expected  on  good  corn  land  in  the  corn  belt  from  good 
methods  of  culture. 

151.  The  Form  of  Ear.    The  form  of  ear  and  type  of 
kernel  of  course  depend  largely  upon  the  variety  of  corn. 


118 


FIELD  CROPS 


In  a  general  way,  the  ears  that  have  proved  capable  of  pro- 
ducing the  best  yields  are  somewhat  uniform  in  circumference 
from  butt  to  tip;  that  is,  they  do  not  taper  noticeably.  Ears 
on  which  the  rows  of  kernels  are  straight  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  ears  with  crooked,  irregular  rows,  as  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  the  kernels  are  uniform  and  consequently 
suitable  for  seed.  Ears  of  corn  with  coarse,  rough  butts  are 
objectionable  for  the  same  reason  that  pure-bred  animals 
that  are  coarse  of  bone  and  irregular  in  form  are  not  desirable. 
It  is  generally  advisable  to  select  ears  of  corn  on  which  the 
tips  are  rather  well  filled.  If  the  tips  are  not  filled,  it  indi- 


Fig.  r>S.     Tips  of  ears:      (1)  A  good  tip,  well-filled;  (2)  a  Ions;,  tapering,  irregular 
tip;  (3)  a  broad  tip,  not  filled  out;  (4)  an  unfilled  tip.     Only  No.  1  is  desirable. 

cates  that  for  some  reason  the  corn  has  not  reached  maturity 
or  has  not  developed  properly.  Deep  furrows  between  the 
rows  of  kernels  are  objectionable  chiefly  because  there  is 
nothing  in  these  furrows  but  air  and  it  is  much  better  to 
have  the  furrows  filled  out  nearly  full  with  corn.  It  is  there- 
fore desirable  to  select  ears  on  which  the  kernels  occupy  all 
of  the  space  next  to  the  cob.  On  careful  examination,  many 
ears  will  be  found  with  considerable  open  space  between  the 
tips  of  the  kernels,  simply  due  to  the  poor  shape  of  the  ker- 
nels. Such  ears  should  be  avoided. 

152.  Type  of  Kernel.     If  one  is  to  make  a  careful  and 
accurate  selection  of  corn,  he  can  not  overlook  the  kernel. 


LOW  AND  HIGH  PROTEIN  CONTENT 


119 


LOW  t»«oTFUN  KERNEL:    mon  PROTEIN  KERNEL 


Fig.  39.  Diagrammatic  chart  showing  composition  of  kernels  of  corn  which 
are  low  and  high  in  their  protein  content.  Note  how  much  greater  the  propor- 
tion of  starch  is  in  the  low  protein  kernel. 


120  FIELD  CROPS 

While  much  may  be  done  simply  by  examining  ears  of  corn, 
there  is  much  that  can  not  be  seen  by  this  examination; 
when  one  is  making  a  careful  selection  for  seed,  the  kernels 
should  receive  due  consideration.  It  is  well  to  take  out  a 
couple  of  kernels  from  each  ear  to  make  sure  that  they  are 
of  the  desired  type. 

Each  kernel  should  be  of  such  shape  that  all  of  the  space 
about  the  cob  is  occupied,  or  at  least  as  much  of  it  as  is 
consistent  with  the  variety  under  consideration.  Each 
kernel  should  show  a  large,  strong  germ,  because  the  germ 
is  the  plantlet  that  is  to  make  the  next  generation  of  corn. 
The  germ  is  also  of  importance  because  it  contains  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  feeding  value  of  the  kernel,  hence 
kernels  with  large  germs  are  worth  more  for  feed  than  those 
with  small  ones.  Kernels  with  sharp-pointed  tips  are  sure 
to  have  small  germs. 

A  careful  study  of  the  kernel  will  indicate  very  much 
regarding  the  feeding  value  of  the  corn.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  starch  in  each  kernel  which  are  readily  detected  on 
examination.  Near  the  crown,  down  through  the  center  of 
the  kernel,  and  about  the  germ  is  found  what  is  known  as 
the  white  starch.  This  can  be  distinguished  from  the  hard 
or  horny  starch,  to  be  seen  on  both  sides  of  the  kernel.  The 
larger  the  proportion  of  horny  starch  the  higher  the  feeding 
value  of  the  corn,  as  the  horny  starch  is  much  richer  in 
protein  than  the  white  starch.  As  a  rule,  the  presence  of  a 
large  proportion  of  white  starch  and  a  small  proportion  of 
horny  starch  indicates  immaturity,  and  these  points  must  be 
considered  in  making  the  final  selection  for  seed  if  one  would 
have  corn  of  good  quality. 

It  is  desirable  to  obtain  as  large  a  proportion  of  shelled 
corn  to  cob  as  possible,  and  depth  of  kernel  is  a  very  fair 
indication  of  this  proportion.  However,  the  fact  that  deep- 


STORING  SEED   CORN 


121 


kerneled  varieties  are  almost  always  later  in  maturing  than 
the  types  with  more  shallow  kernels  must  not  be  over- 
looked in  making  selections.  Care  and  judgment  must 
always  be  used  to  select  kernels  as  deep  as  is  practical,  and 
still  get  corn  that  will  mature  safely 
in  the  locality. 

STORING  SEED  CORN 

153.  Conditions    for   Storing.     In 

storing  seed  corn,  one  must  recognize 
the  fact  that  in  each  kernel  of  corn 
there  is  a  small,  living  plant,  which 
under  certain  conditions  may  be  in- 
jured. If  corn  is  placed  in  a  damp, 
warm  atmosphere,  the  germ  is  likely 
to  be  injured  by  molding.  If  the  corn 
is  exposed  to  severe  cold  while  it  still 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  moist- 
ure, the  cells  in  the  germ  are  very 
likely  to  be  broken  by  the  expansion 
of  the  moisture  on  freezing  and  the 
germ  thus  destroyed.  This  makes  it 
apparent  that  the  safe  storage  of  seed 
corn  requires  that  it  should  be  dried 
out  quickly,  that  it  be  kept  in  a  place 
where  it  will  remain  dry,  and  that  it 
be  not  allowed  to  freeze  until  it  is 
thoroughly  dry.  Though  corn  will 
stand  considerable  freezing  without  injury  when  it  is  dry, 
it  is  better  to  protect  it  from  frost  if  possible,  for  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  just  when  it  is'  dry  enough  to  be  safe. 

154.  Storage  Houses.    Where  large  quantities  of  seed 
corn  are  handled,  as  is  the  case  with  seed  firms,  special  seed- 


Fig.  40.  The  seed 
corn  tree.  Nails  are 
driven  in  rows  on  the 
sides  of^the  post  and  the 
seed  ears  are  stuck  on 
them. 


122 


FIELD  CROPS 


houses  well  provided  with  ventilation  are  constructed.  The 
corn  is  put  into  racks  or  very  narrow  cribs,  which  are  often 
made  of  woven  wire  so  that  free  circulation  of  air  is  possible. 
On  the  farm,  where  only  enough  seed  corn  is  saved  for  home 
use,  more  careful  methods  can  very  profitably  be  followed. 

155.  Storing  on  the  Farm.  The  right  method  is  to  store 
the  ears  so  that  no  two  are  touching  and  so  that  each  ear  is 
exposed  to  free  circulation  of  air. 

Any  convenient  place  where  corn  can  be  dried  out  before 
cold  weather,  preferably  without  artificial  heat,  and  where 


Fig.  41.     Several  methods  of  placing  seed  corn  for  storing;  the  double-string 
method   at   the  left. 

mice  can  be  kept  from  it  may  be  used  with  very  satisfactory 
results.  A  well-ventilated  attic  with  at  least  two  windows 
that  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  will  and  which  gets  some 
heat  from  the  rooms  below  is  an  ideal  place  for  storing  seed 
corn.  If  the  cellar  is  dry  and  well  ventilated,  it  affords  a 
good  place  for  storing  seed  corn,  but  if  it  is  not  dry,  corn 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  CORN  123 

should  not  be  stored  there.  Cellars  are  not  usually  suitable 
unless  they  are  provided  with  furnace  heat.  Storing  in 
granaries  over  bins  of  grain  is  not  safe,  as  the  grain  is  likely 
to  heat  or  to  give  off  moisture  and  injure  the  corn. 

156.  Methods  of  Storing.    As  previously  stated,   (Sec. 
154),  seed  corn  in  large  quantities  is  usually  stored  in  narrow 
bins  through  which  air  can  circulate  quite  freely.     Some 
practical  methods  of  storing  smaller  quantities  of  corn  on  the 
farm  are  shown  in  Figs.  40  and  41.     The  seed  corn  tree  is  a 
square,  octagonal,  or  round  post  4  to  6  feet  high,  fixed  to 
stand  erect  on  a  broad  base.     Finishing  nails  are  driven  into 
it  just  far  enough  apart  so  that  when  ears  are  jabbed  on  to 
them,  butts  first,  they  will  just  miss  one  another.    This 
makes  an  excellent  place  to  store  seed  corn.    Another  very 
convenient  way  of  hanging  up  seed  corn  is  the  double  string 
method  illustrated  in  Fig.  41. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  CORN 

157.  Problems  in  Improvement.    There  are  many  prob- 
lems connected  with  the  improvement  of  seed  corn  which 
are  not  met  with  in  the  improvement  of  some  of  the  other 
farm  crops.     The  chief  difficulty  involved  in  improving  corn 
comes  from  the  fact  that  it  is  open-fertilized;  i.  e.,  the  female 
flowers  of  one  plant  are  naturally  fertilized  by  pollen  from 
the  male  flowers  of  other  plants.     On  this  account  selected 
strains  are  very  likely  to  become  mixed  with  poorer  indi- 
viduals, and  the  work  of  selection  may  in  this  way  be  entirely 
lost  or  its  effect  greatly  reduced.     While  progress  is  made  by 
the  selection  of  the  best  ears  of  corn,  the  ear  is  but  an  indi- 
cation of  the  character  of  the  mother  plant  on  which  it  grew 
and  shows  nothing  of  the  character  of  the  male  plant  or 
plants  that  produced  the  pollen  to  fertilize  its  kernels. 


124  FIELD  CROPS 

158.  The  Ear-to-Row  Method.  The  fact  that  appear- 
ance does  not  always  enable  one  to  select  the  ears  that  will 
give  the  largest  yields  has  long  been  recognized.  Many 
years  ago  corn  breeders  adopted  the  practice  of  planting  the 
seed  from  the  selected  ears  in  separate  rows  side  by  side  in  a 
uniform  field,  so  that  their  comparative  yielding  power  could 
be  determined.  Such  ear-to-row  tests  almost  always  indicate 
a  very  wide  variation  in  the  yielding  power  of  ears  of  corn, 


Fig.  42.     The  value  of  the   ear-to-row  test.     The  crates  show  the  yield  from  two 
rows  which   appeared  to  be  equally  good. 

even  though  such  ears  may  be  similar  in  appearance.  It  is 
not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  ears  of  the  same  variety  and 
selected  to  the  same  type  which  yield  100  per  cent  more  than 
other  ears  which,  so  far  as  one  can  tell,  appear  to  be  equally 
good. 

For  ear-to-row  tests,  a  uniform  field  wide  enough  to  plant 
as  many  rows  as  there  are  ears  to  be  tested  should  be  pro- 
vided. The  rows  may  be  as  long  as  desired;  they  are  limited, 


CORN  BREEDING  125 

of  course,  by  the  number  of  kernels  on  the  ears  to  be  tested. 
A  fair-sized  ear  will  plant  a  row  from  40  to  50  rods  long. 
Many  corn  breeders  use  shorter  rows  and  plant  duplicate 
rows  from  each  ear,  to  serve  as  an  additional  check  in 
determining  the  best.  At  harvest  time,  the  product  of  each 
ear  is  carefully  weighed  and  the  high-yielding  and  low-yield- 
ing ears  thus  discovered.  The  corn  from  the  low-yielding 
rows  is  discarded,  and  only  seed  from  the  high-yielding  rows 
is  saved  for  future  planting. 

159.  Difficulties    of    the    Ear-to-Row    Method.    This 
method  of  corn  breeding  has  been  followed  by  many  breeders 
and  has  given  some  gratifying  results.    The  chief  objection 
to  it  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  high-yielding  rows  of  corn 
have  been  fertilized  with  pollen  from  all  of  the  rows,  so  that 
the  individual  kernels  on  the  selected  ears,  while  they  are 
known  to  come  from  a  mother  plant  of  high  yielding  power, 
are  from  an  unknown  male  parent,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  many  of  the  kernels  in  the  ears  selected  from  the  high- 
est-yielding row  will  have  been  fertilized  by  pollen  from  low- 
yielding  rows.     On  this  account,  this  method  of  breeding 
corn  has  resulted  in  a  great  many  disappointments. 

160.  Pedigreed  Varieties.    In  order  that  a  plant  or  an 
animal  may  be  pedigreed,  its  ancestors  on  both  sides  must 
be  known.     For  a  pedigree  to  be  of  material  value,  the 
performance  records  of  its  parents  must  likewise  be  known. 
It  is  quite  evident  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  produce  a 
pedigreed  variety  of  corn  by  the  ear-to-row  method  of  breed- 
ing outlined  in  the  preceding  paragraphs.    While  the  mother 
plant  and  the  record  of  the  mother  plant  for  generations 
might  be  known,  the  male  plant  is  absolutely  unknown. 

Professor  C.  G.  Williams  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  was  one  of  the  first  men,  if  not  the  first,  to 
conceive  a  plan  by  which  really  pedigreed  corn  might  be 


126  FIELD  CHOPS 

produced.  His  plan  is  to  start  with  the  ear-to-row  test, 
selecting  fifty  or  one  hundred  ears  as  desired.  The  corre- 
sponding number  of  rows  is  planted  in  duplicate  from  these 
ears,  but  only  half  or  less  than  half  of  the  seed  from  each  ear 
is  used;  the  other  half  is  reserved  for  future  use.  The  parts 
of  the  ears  retained  are  numbered  to  correspond  with  the 
rows  planted.  The  test  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  ear-to-row  test;  that  is,  the  corn  is  cultivated  in  the 
usual  way,  and  the  product  from  each  row  is  weighed  to 
determine  those  which  produced  the  highest  yield. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  after  the  ear-to-row 
test  has  shown  which  are  the  high-yielding  ears,  the  best 
two  may  be  mated  by  planting  the  remaining  portions  of 
them  the  following  year  and  a  cross  between  two  ears  of 
known  high-yielding  power  thus  obtained.  For  example: 
If  ear  No.  25  should  yield  80  bushels  to  the  acre  and  ear  No. 
42,  85  bushels  to  the  acre,  while  the  rest  of  the  ears  yielded 
70  bushels  or  less,  it  would  be  plain  that  ears  No.  25  and  42 
were  the  highest-yielding  ears  in  the  lot.  The  second  year, 
the  remaining  portions  of  these  two  ears  would  be  planted  in 
an  isolated  seed  plat,  which  might  be  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
hills  square;  each  alternate  row  would  be  planted  with  seed 
from  ear  No.  25,  and  the  rest  from  ear  No.  42.  When  the 
corn  in  this  plat  begins  to  tassel,  each  alternate  row,  that  is, 
all  plants  coming  from  ear  No.  42,  would  be  detasseled  and 
the  other  plants  left  to  produce  tassels.  It  would  then  be 
certain  that  all  of  the  ears  on  the  rows  planted  to  ear  No.  42 
would  of  necessity  be  fertilized  with  pollen  coming  from  the 
rows  planted  to  ear  No.  25.  The  seed  saved  from  row  No. 
42  could  really  be  called  pedigreed  corn;  that  is,  one  would 
know  absolutely  the  male  parent  of  the  corn  and  its  per- 
formance record,  as  well  as  the  mother  plant  and  its  per- 
formance record. 


THE  PREVENTION  OF  INBREEDING  127 

In  such  a  breeding  plat,  it  is  necessary  to  take  every  pre- 
caution to  prevent  the  introduction  of  pollen  from  any  other 
corn.  All  of  the  corn  produced  on  the  row  planted  to  ear 
No.  25  would,  of  course,  be  inbred;  that  is,  these  ears  would 
naturally  have  been  fertilized  by  pollen  produced  on  plants 
from  the  same  ear.  All  of  this  corn  would  be  discarded  and 
seed  saved  only  from  the  detasseled  rows. 

161.  Inbreeding.  One  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
this  plan  is  the  inbreeding  which  is  likely  to  be  brought  about 
by  this  close  selection  of  corn.  Professor  Williams  has 
planned  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by  continuing  his  ear-to- 
row  tests  year  after  year.  He  has  worked  out  a  system  which 
calls  for  four  separate  plats  or  fields  of  corn  each  year.  The 
first  plat  is  devoted  to  the  ear-to-row  test.  The  second 
plat,  where  the  best  ears,  as  shown  by  the  ear-to-row 
test  of  the  previous  year,  are  mated,  is  called  the  breeding 
plat.  The  third  plat  is  termed  the  multiplication  plat. 
This  may  be  of  any  size  desired.  Here  the  seed  produced 
from  the  breeding  plat  of  the  year  before  is  planted  to  obtain 
enough  seed  for  field  use.  The  fourth  plat  is  the  regular  field 
of  corn  or  general  crop,  the  seed  for  which  comes  from  the 
multiplication  plat. 

For  this  ear-to-row  test  which  is  conducted  each  year, 
some  of  the  best  ears  are  taken  from  the  general  field,  some 
from  the  multiplication  plat,  and  some  from  the  breeding 
plat.  When  it  is  thought  that  new  blood  must  be  brought 
in  from  outside,  selected  ears  of  the  variety  with  which  one 
is  working  may  be  obtained  from  other  farms  or  other 
breeders.  By  running  all  of  these  ears  together  in  the  ear- 
to-row  test  and  then  selecting  and  mating  together  the  high- 
yielding  ears  each  year,  new  blood  can  constantly  be  brought 
in  from  ears  of  known  yielding  power.  This  "is  the  plan  of 


128  FIELD  CROPS 

breeding  that  will  quite  probably  be  adopted  eventually  by 
all  corn  breeders. 

162.  Breeding  for  Protein  and  Oil.    Considerable  prog- 
ress has  been  made  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  in 
breeding  corn  to  increase  the  percentage  of  protein  and  oil. 
This  station  recommends  the  selection  of  corn  with  this 
purpose  in  view.    The  oil  content  may  be  increased  by  select- 
ing kernels  having  large  germs.     By  examining  the  kernels 
and  selecting  those  showing  a  large  proportion  of  horny  to 
white  starch  (see  Fig.  39),  an  increase  in  the  protein  content 
may  be  secured.    The  station  results  indicate  that  selection 
for  high  protein  has  a  tendency  to  decrease  yield. 

163.  The  Need  for  Special  Breeders.    Too  much  time 
and  too  much  careful  work  are  involved  in  the  scientific 
breeding  of  corn  to  make  it  practical  for  each  farmer  to 
attempt  the  work.     Probably  the  average  farmer  will  not 
care  to  go  farther  in  breeding  work  than  to  have  a  special 
seed  corn  plat,  and  not  attempt  to  produce  pedigreed  seed 
corn,  or  even  to  conduct  an  ear-to-row  test.    This  will  mean 
that  in  every  corn-growing  community  there  will  be  room  for 
a  corn  breeder.    When  this  breeder  has  demonstrated  that 
he  has  corn  of  superior  quality  especially  adapted  to  the 
locality,  he  will  have  little  difficulty  in  selling  it  at  a  price 
which  will  make  it  profitable  for  him  to  breed  corn  as  a 
business.     If  he  really  produces  corn  of  high  quality,  it  will 
likewise  be  profitable  for  farmers  in  the  community  to  buy 
seed  of  him. 

164.  The  Farmer's  Seed  Corn  Plat.    Every  corn-grower 
can  well  afford  to  give  some  time  and  thought  to  the  care  and 
handling  of  a  seed  corn  plat.    The  size  of  this  plat  will 
depend  upon  the  acreage  of  corn  grown.    The  object  should 
be  to  have  the  plat  large  enough  to  produce  sufficient  seed 
of  excellent  quality  to  meet  his  requirements.     If  the  seed 


THE  SEED  CORN  PLAT  129 

corn  plat  is  to  be  one  acre  in  size,  the  proper  method  is  to 
select  the  necessary  number  of  ears,  which  is  about  twenty, 
to  plant  this  plat,  using  extra  care  to  select  absolutely  the 
best  ears  that  can  be  obtained.  After  the  ears  are  selected 
and  tested,  the  plat  is  planted  in  the  same  way  as  the  ordi- 
nary field;  in  fact,  it  is  preferably  a  part  of  the  regular  corn 
field.  If  possible,  it  should  be  on  either  the  south  or  the  west 
side  of  the  field,  or  on  the  side  toward  the  prevailing  winds, 
so  that  the  pollen  from  the  main  portion  will  be  less  likely 
to  fertilize  the  stalks  in  this  seed  plat.  Care  must  be  taken, 
however,  that  the  plat  is  not  near  a  neighbor's  corn  field, 
because  the  neighbor  may  not  have  as  carefully  selected  corn 
as  that  grown  on  the  plat.  It  is  better  to  have  the  seed  corn 
plat  near  the  middle  of  the  main  field  than  to  have  it  near  a 
neighbor's  corn  of  a  different  variety  or  of  inferior  quality. 
A  seed  corn  plat  planted  in  this  way  may  be  cultivated  with 
the  rest  of  the  field,  so  that  very  little  extra  work  is  entailed. 

The  best  seed  is  planted  on  this  plat  and  extra  care  is 
taken  while  it  is  growing  to  see  that  all  weak  and  barren 
stalks  are  removed  or  detasseled,  so  that  all  ears  produced 
on  it  will  be  fertilized  from  strong  stalks  that  bear  ears  of 
corn.  When  the  time  comes  to  select  seed,  all  of  the  best 
corn  produced  in  the  seed  plat  is  selected.  The  following 
spring  the  twenty  best  ears  are  selected  and  planted  in 
another  seed  corn  plat,  and  the  balance  is  used  for  the  seed 
of  the  main  crop.  On  a  small  plat  of  this  kind,  one  can 
afford  to  use  more  care  in  selecting  seed  and  in  weeding  out 
or  detasseling  the  weak  stalks  than  is  practical  on  the  large 
fields. 

JUDGING  CORN 

165.  Object  of  Judging.  The  judging  of  corn,  while  it 
calls  for  sound  judgment,  is  not  nearly  so  difficult  as  it  at 
first  seems.  When  one  first  looks  at  an  exhibit  of  corn  con- 


130  FIELD  CROPS 

taining  a  large  number  of  samples,  it  appears  to  be  an  almost 
impossible  task  to  pick  out  the  best  lots.  The  chief  object 
in  the  improvement  of  corn  is  to  get  a  variety  that  will  yield 
the  largest  possible  quantity  of  food  products  to  the  acre. 
The  work  of  the  judge  is  simply  to  pick  out  the  sample  of 
corn  among  those  exhibited  that,  in  his  judgment,  will 
produce  the  best  crop  of  corn  if  planted  the  following  season. 

166.  The  Use  of  the  Score  Card.    To  become  familiar 
with  the  important  points  in  an  ear  or  other  sample  of  corn, 
one  should  make  a  careful  study  of  a  score  card.     There  are 
many  different  score   cards  in  use.     Nearly  every  state 
agricultural  college  has  a  score  card  for  corn,  each  differing 
from  those  used  by  the  other  colleges.     The  difference  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  some  points  seem  to  be  of  more  value  in 
some  sections  of  the  country  than  in  others. 

The  object  of  the  score  card  is  simply  to  call  the  judge's 
or  the  student's  attention  to  the  various  points  of  importance 
in  the  sample  under  consideration  so  that  no  point  will  be 
overlooked.  The  relative  values  given  these  different  points 
are  not  so  important  as  the  fact  that  they  all  are  considered 
and  that  all  of  the  corn  in  each  class  is  judged  on  the  same 
basis.  There  are  very  few  judges  of  experience  who  use  the 
score  card.  They  have  trained  themselves  until  they  are 
able  to  observe  and  weigh  the  relative  merits  of  the  different 
points  of  each  sample  of  corn  presented  to  them. 

167.  Types  of  Score  Cards.    Two  types  of  score  cards 
are  presented  here.    The  first  is  the  one  used  by  the  Exten- 
sion Division  of  the  Iowa  State  College.     It  is  a  very  practi- 
cal score  card  for  general  use,  as  the  four  most  important 
points  to  consider  in  judging  corn  are  so  emphasized  that  one 
can  easily  carry  them  in  mind  when  judging.    The  other 
score  card  submitted  is  the  one  used  by  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  University  of  Minnesota.     This  score  card  is 


JUDGING  CORN  131 

much  more  complete  than  the  first  and  is  a  good  one  for  the 
beginner  to  use,  as  it  brings  out  in  detail  each  point  that 
must  be  considered. 

168.  Placing  Samples.  When  attempting  to  judge  a 
large  number  of  samples  of  corn  on  exhibition,  the  first  step 
is  to  eliminate  all  of  the  poorer  samples  from  the  class  which 
is  under  consideration.  As  a  rule,  a  large  number  of  samples 
are  easily  weeded  out,  for  there  may  be  mixed  kernels,  soft 
ears,  poor  ears,  or  other  disqualifying  factors  which  are 
easily  noticed.  The  second  step  is  to  get  the  remaining  good 
samples  together,  where  they  may  be  easily  compared. 
The  third  step  is  to  place  at  one  end  of  the  exhibit  table  or 
bench  the  sample  that  seems  best;  then  bring  up  the  other 
samples  and  place  them  as  their  merit  seems  to  warrant. 
When  one  feels  reasonably  well  convinced  that  he  has  them 
placed  in  the  proper  order,  or  nearly  so,  a  couple  of  kernels 
should  be  removed  from  each  ear  in  each  sample  and  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  ear  from  which  they  were  taken.  This 
enables  one  to  compare  the  kernels  in  the  sample  to  see 
whether  or  not  they  are  good  in  shape  and  true  to  type,  and 
whether  or  not  they  are  uniform.  Removing  kernels  from 
the  samples  is  always  necessary  when  the  competition  is  at 
all  close. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  CORN  USED  BY  THE  EXTENSION 
DIVISION,  IOWA  STATE  COLLEGE 

Points 

I.     Will  It  Yield?  25 

That  is,  will  it  yield  well;  has  it  constitution;  can  we  depend 
on  it  even  when  conditions  are  unfavorable? 

II.     Will  It  Ripen?  25 

That  is,  will  it  mature;  will  it  ripen  every  year;  is  it  safe  for 
the  locality? 

III.     Does  It  Show  Improvement?  25 

That  is,  has  it  breeding;  has  it  a  distinct  type;  will  it  repro- 
duce itself;  has  it  several  years  of  careful  selection  and 
improvement  back  of  it? 

IV.     Will  It  Grow?  25 

That  is,  has  it  vitality;  will  it  germinate;  will  it  all  grow  and 
grow  uniformly,  giving  strong,  vigorous  plants? 

100 


132 


FIELD  CROPS 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  EAR  CORN 
Used  by  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Minnesota 


Yield,— 50  points. 


Standard 
Score 
Points 


(1)  Form  of  ear. — Nearly    cylindrical;    straight,    regular   rows. 
Proportionate  length  to  circumference,  about  4  to  3.     Ker- 
nels should  be  similar  at  ends  and  middle.     Tapering,  irregu- 
lar, or  malformed  ears  are  objectionable 10 

(2)  Butts  of  ears. — Rows    of    kernels    regular    and    complete, 
leaving  a  medium  deep  depression  where  shank  is  broken  off. 
Enlarged,  open  or  contracted  butts  are  objectionable 5 

(3)  Tips  of  ears. — Well   rounded   and   filled    with  regular,  full- 
sized  kernels.     Not  pointed  or  tapering 5 

(4)  Length  of  ear. — This  varies  with  the  variety.1 10 

(5)  Circumference  of  ear. — This  varies  with  the  variety .2 8 

(6)  Kernel  arrangement. — The    kernels    should    be  arranged    in 
straight,  even,  and  unbroken  rows.     Twisted  rows  or  other- 
wise irregular  rows  are  objectionable 2 

(7)  Space. — Between    the    rows   of    kernels    should   be   slight; 
between  the  kernels  at  cob,  none 2 

(8)  Kernel  shape. — Varies  slightly  acc9rding  to  variety.     They 
should  be  square  shouldered,  straight  on  sides,  and  taper 
(wedge-like)  slightly  from  cap  to  tip 2 

(9)  Kernel   uniformity. — All    kernels    on    all    parts    of    the    ear 
should  be  nearly  uniform  in  size  and  shape 1 

(10)      Per   cent    of   shelled   corn. — Determined   by    weight.      It   is 

very  important  that  the  per  cent  be  80  or  more. 3 5 

Variety  Characters, — 10  points. 

(1)  Color  of  grain. — Uniform.     True  to  the  variety  represented 

and  free  from  hybrid  kernels 5 

(2)  Color  of  cob. — True  to  variety  and  of  bright  luster.     Gen- 
erally white  corn   has   white   cob  and  yellow  corn  has  red 
cob 

(3)  Kernel  indentation. — Typical  of  variety  represented 

(4)  Kernel  shape. — Typical  of  variety  represented 1 

Vitality,— 25  points. 

(1)      Luster. — Means  the  brilliancy   of  color.     The  ears  and  ker- 
nels   should    be    bright    throughout.     Weathering    or    aged 

appearance   is  objectionable 5 

Germ,  color. — Should  be  rich  cheese  color   and  bright 5 

Germ,  size. — Should  be  large  in  proportion  to  kernel 

Germ,  shape. — Straight  and  broad.     Not  cramped 

(5)  Kernel  condition. — Sound,  well  filled,  firm  and  well  cured 5 

Market  Condition, — 15  points. 

(1)  Maturity. — The  ears    should    be    thoroughly    mature,   dry, 

firm  and  sound 10 

(2)  Freedom    from    injury. — Mold,    decay,    dirt,    mice-gnawed, 

or  shelled  kernels,  and  weathering 5 

100 


^Length. — Measure  with  the  ruler  all  of  the  ears.  Take  one  point  off  in  the 
score  for  each  2  inches  less  than  standard  thus  obtained.  No  deduction  is  made 
for  excess  length. 

2Circumference. — Measure  with  the  tape  about  2  inches  from  the  butt  of  each 
ear.  Take  one  point  off  the  score  for  each  2  inches  of  deficiency  obtained.  No  cut 
is  made  for  excess  circumference. 

sper  cent  of  shelled  corn. — Weigh  the  average  five  ears;  shell  them  and  weigh 
the  shelled  corn;  divide  the  shelled  weight  by  the  total  weight  to  get  the  percent- 
age, and  cut  one  point  off  the  score  for  each  per  cent  less  than  standard,  85  per  cent. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  CORN  133 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Select  from  a  large  number  of  ears  in  the  field,  in  the  crib,  or  in 
the  seed-house,  10  ears  of  corn  as  nearly  alike  as  possible  in  the  follow- 
ing respects :    Cobs  the  same  length,  size,  color  and  shape ;  tips  and  butts 
well  filled;  rows  of  kernels  straight;  the  same  number  of  rows  on  each 
cob;  kernels  of  the  same  depth,  shape  and  color,  with  uniformly  large 
germs,  and  broad,  well-filled  tips.     Note  the  large  number  of  ears  it  is 
necessary  to  handle  to  secure  the  ten-ear  sample,  also  the  great  ten- 
dency to  vary. 

2.  Test  100  ears  for  germination  by  the  individual  ear  method  as 
described  in  this  chapter.     Make  a  note  of  the  materials  and  time  used 
to  make  the  test-box,  put  the  100  ears  to  test,  and  read  the  results. 
How  much  more  corn  must  one  secure  at  50  cents  per  bushel  to  pay  for 
the  time  and  materials  used  in  making  the  test?    Do  you  think  it  pays 
to  test  corn?    How  many  acres  will  100  ears  of  corn  plant  in  check 
rows  3  feet  8  inches  apart  each  way,  and  3  kernels  dropped  per  hill? 

3.  Make  a  seed-corn  tree  as  described  in  this  chapter.     Note  cost 
of  materials  and  time  required.    How  much  did  it  cost,  you?    How 
many  ears  of  corn  will  a  tree  6  feet  high  and  with  8  rows  of  nails  hold? 
How  many  such  seed-corn  trees  would  you  need  to  store  enough  seed- 
corn  for  your  own  use?    Hang  up  some  seed-corn  by  the  double  string 
method  also  described  and  illustrated  in  this  chapter. 

4.  When  the  corn  is  ripe  hi  your  neighborhood,  go  into  a  field, 
select  an  average  row,  and  count  the  number  of  stalks  in  100  hills  that 
have  produced  ears.     (Count  as  hills  each  place  where  there  should 
have  been  a  hill,  whether  any  stalks  are  there  or  not.)     Husk  the  corn 
and  weigh  it.    Secure  also  the  yield  from  the  best  hill  and  from  the 
poorest.    At  what  rate  does  the  corn  yield  to  the  acre?    How  much 
would  it  have  yielded  had  there  been  a  perfect  stand  of  3  bearing  stalks 
per  hill?    How  much  corn  would  have  been  produced  to  the  acre  had 
there  been  a  perfect  stand  and  every  hill  yielded  as  much  as  the  best 
hill? 

5.  Secure  kernels  of  corn  from  several  different  samples,  soak  them 
in  warm  water,  then  remove  the  hulls  and  make  comparisons.    See 
Fig.  39.     Which  kernels  have  the  largest  amount  of  horny  starch? 
Which  have  the  most  white,  or  crown,  starch?    Which  variety  or  sample 
do  you  believe  contains  the  largest  percentage  of  protein?    Which  is 
worth  most  per  pound  for  feed?     Secure  some  immature  kernels  and 
compare  them  in  the  same  manner  with  thoroughly  matured  kernels. 


134  FIELD  CROPS 

Which  do  you  believe  have  the  largest  amount  of  protein  and  are  worth 
most  for  feed? 

6.  Soak  a  number  of  kernels  of  corn  in  warm  water,  then  separate 
them  into  the  following  parts:    hull,  tip-cap,  horny    gluten,  germ, 
crown  or  white  starch,  and  horny  starch.     With  the  exception  of  the 
horny  gluten,  a  thin  layer  just  under  the  hull,  there  will  be  no  difficulty 
in  separating  the  parts.     See  Fig.  39. 

7.  Secure  two  samples  of  corn,  one  graded,  the  other  ungraded,  and 
a  horse  corn-planter.     Block  up  the  planter  until  the  wheels  turn  free. 
Put  in  some  of  the  ungraded  seed,  and  run  the  planter  until  100  hills 
have  been  dropped.    Count  the  kernels  dropped  for  each  hill,  and  find 
the  number  of  hills  in  100  for  which  just  three  kernels  were  dropped. 
This  will  give  the  percentage  of  a  perfect  drop.    Repeat  the  process, 
using  the  graded  seed  and  changing  the  plates  until  the  most  perfect 
drop  possible  is  secured.     It  may  be  necessary  to  file  the  holes  in  the 
planter  plates  to  get  them  just  the  right  size,  but  it  is  better,  if  possible, 
to  secure  new  plates. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  398-427. 

Bowman  &  Crossley's  Corn. 

Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  121-136. 

Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  138-279. 

Myrick's  The  Book  of  Corn. 

Sargent's  Corn  Plants  and  How  They  Grow. 

Shamel's  Manual  of  Corn  Judging 

Shoesmith's  The  Study  of  Corn. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

81.  Corn  Culture  in  the  South. 

199.  Corn  Growing. 

229.  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 

253.  The  Germination  of  Seed  Corn. 

298.  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 

303.  Corn  Harvesting  Machinery. 

313.  Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn. 

409.  School  Lessons  in  Corn. 

414.  Corn  Cultivation. 

415.  Seed  Corn. 


CHAPTER  IV 
WHEAT 

169.  Origin  and  History.    As  far  back  as  history  goes, 
wheat  has  been  cultivated  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
Because  of  its  antiquity,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  trace  its 
origin.    It  is  known  to  have  been  grown  extensively  in 
western  Asia,  in  Europe,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  Africa, 
ever  since  there  have  been  any  records  of  human  events, 
and  there  are  evidences  which  indicate  that  it  was  grown  in 
China  at  least  3000  B.  C.     Wheat  is  mentioned  in  the  first 
book  of  the  Bible,  and  its  use  for  bread-making  dates  back 
many  centuries. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  CLASSIFICATION 

170.  Relationships.    Wheat  belongs  to  the  grass  family 
and  to  the  tribe  Hordeae;  it  is  very  closely  related  to  barley 
and  rye.     Certain  botanists  have  tried  to  show  that  wheat 
was  evolved  from  a  higher  type  of  plant,  the  lily;  others 
seem  to  think  that  it  is  more  likely  that  it  evolved,  through 
a  natural  process,  from  the  wild  grass  known  as  Aegilops, 
common  in  southern  Europe.     There  is  apparently  no  def- 
inite means  of  proving  or  disproving  either  of  these  theories, 
and  whether  it  was  developed  in  several  countries  independ- 
ently or  in  one  section  and  carried  by  the  earlier  tribes  to 
other  sections,  is  unknown.    All  of  these  theories  are  some- 
what interesting,  but  quite  unimportant.     The  important 
fact  is  that  we  have  this  valuable  plant,  adapted  to  a  very 
wide  range  of  soils  and  climatic  conditions,  giving  us  a 
product  from  which  the  standard  bread  of  the  world  is 
made. 


136  FIELD  CROPS 

171.  Season  of  Growth.    Wheat  is  grown  successfully  on 
some  of  the  higher  altitudes  at  the  equator,  and  from  there 
all  the  way  to  within  200  miles  of  the  Arctic  Circle.    Wheat 
does  best  in  a  temperate  climate  where  the  rainfall  is  not 
less  than  20  inches,  largely  distributed  through  the  growing 
season,  and  where  the  seasons  are  sufficiently  long  to  allow 
100  to  125  days  of  good  growing  weather  free  from  frost. 
Spring  wheat  will  mature  in  from  100  to  125  days  from  the 
time  of  planting.     Winter  wheat  requires  about  100  days  to 
mature  from  the  beginning  of  the  growing  weather  in  the 
spring. 

172.  Botanical  Characters.    The  wheat  plant  is  a  true 
annual,  though  in  some  instances  it  has  been  changed  into 
what  is  known  as  a  winter  annual,  being  sown  in  the  fall  and 
maturing    early    the    following    summer.     The    numerous 
fibrous  roots  grow  in  whorls  from  the  lower  joints  of  the  stem. 
Most  of  the  roots  of  the  wheat  plant  are  usually  found  in  the 
surface  soil,  though  under  favorable  conditions  they  have 
been  known  to  grow  to  a  depth  of  7  feet.     However,  such 
growth  is  unusual. 

Like  most  of  the  grasses,  the  stems  of  wheat  are  jointed 
and  hollow,  except  in  the  variety  known  as  emmer,  in  which 
the  stems  are  more  or  less  pithy.  During  the  early  stages  of 
growth,  the  stems  are  very  short,  though  they  very  early 
develop  the  entire  number  of  nodes  and  internodes.  For 
several  weeks  the  plants  devote  their  energies  to  producing 
roots  and  leaves  and  in  developing  new  stems,  or  stools. 
When  a  good  growth  of  leaves  and  roots  has  been  developed, 
the  stems  shoot  up  quickly,  simply  by  lengthening  the  inter- 
nodes.  Stooling  is  accomplished  by  buds  at  the  lower  nodes 
developing  into  culms.  In  this  way  a  large  number  of  stems 
may  be  produced  from  one  seed,  the  number  being  deter- 
mined by  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  and  the  thickness, 


BOTANICAL  CHARACTERS. 


137 


of  planting.  The  stems  vary  in  height  from  20  to  50  inches, 
and  in  diameter  from  1-16  to  1-8  inch. 

173.  The  Leaves.    As  soon  as  a  kernel  of  wheat  germi- 
nates, it  sends  out  leaves  and  roots  to  enable  the  plant  to 
live  after  the  supply  of  food  in  the  seed  is  exhausted.    These 
first  leaves  come  from  the  lower  joints  of  the  stem,  and  per- 
form their  work  during  the  early  growth  of  the  plant.    As 
the  stem  grows,  the  leaves  on  the  upper  nodes  develop  and 
shade  the  lower  leaves  so  that  they  wither  and  disappear. 
The    leaves   of 

wheat  are  alter- 
nate, one  leaf 
appearing  from 
each  joint.  The 
lower  part  of  the 
leaf,  the  sheath, 
clasps  the  stem 
nearly  the  entire 
length  of  the 
internode.  The 
sheath  is  split 
open  on  the  side 

Opposite  the  leaf  Fig.  43.  At  the  left,  a  wheat  flower;  at  the  right,  a 
t  ,  .  spikelet  of  wheat  in  bloom. 

blade,  and  at  the 

junction  of  the  sheath  and  blade  is  a  ligule  which  clasps 
the  stem  tightly.  The  blades  are  long  and  tapering;  they 
vary  from  %  to  %  inch  in  width,  and  from  8  to  15 
inches  in  length. 

174.  The  Flowers.     The  flowers  of  wheat  are  arranged  in 
a  compact  terminal  spike.     The  spike  is  made  up  of  a 
number  of  small  spikelets,  with  two  or  more  flowers  in  each 
spikelet.     These  spikelets  are  arranged  alternately  on  the 
spike  on  either  side  of  a  central  stem  or  rachis.     Each  indi- 


138  FIELD  CROPS 

vidual  flower  or  floret  is  composed  of  a  branched  stigma, 
three  anthers,  and  an  outer  and  inner  flowering  glume, 
commonly  called  the  chaff.  At  the  base  of  each  spikelet 
are  two  flowerless  or  empty  glumes.  At  the  base  of  and 
between  the  two  flowering  glumes  is  a  small  organ  called  the 
lodicule,  which,  when  the  stigma  is  ready  to  be  fertilized, 
absorbs  water,  swells,  and  forces  open  the  glumes.  Figure 
43  shows  a  spikelet  and  a  flower  of  the  wheat  plant. 

Wheat  is  almost  always  close-fertilized;  that  is,  each 
ovary  is  fertilized  by  the  pollen  from  the  same  flower.  The 
anthers  are  so  arranged  that  the  pollen  is  deposited  on  the 
receptive  stigma  as  the  anthers  are  being  pushed  up  out  of 
the  glumes  by  the  lengthening  of  the  filaments.  It  is  prob- 
ably very  rarely  that  any  cross-fertilization  takes  place. 
On  this  account,  wheat  varieties  are  very  stable  in  character, 
for  it  is  much  easier  to  keep  close-fertilized  plants  pure  than 
open-fertilized  ones  like  corn  and  rye. 

The  fruit  at  maturity  is  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  berry 
with  a  longitudinal  crease  or  furrow  in  one  side.  This  is 
known  as  the  kernel.  The  kernels  naturally  vary  in  size, 
color,  weight,  and  composition  with  the  different  varieties  of 
wheat  and  with  climatic  and  soil  conditions. 

175.  Classification  and  Varieties.  Wheat  may  be  classi- 
fied in  many  different  ways;  as  winter  and  spring  wheat,  as 
hard  and  soft  wheat,  as  bread  and  durum  or  macaroni  wheat, 
or  by  the  botanical  differences  in  the  varieties.  Wheat  is 
commonly  divided  into  eight  classes  or  types;  but  as  only 
four  of  these  classes  are  of  importance  in  the  United  States, 
only  these  four  will  be  discussed. 

In  the  first  class,  Triticum  sativum  vulgare,  is  found  all 
of  the  common  bread  wheats,  including  the  hard  and  soft 
winter  and  the  fife  and  bluestem  types.  This  is  by  far  the 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  WHEAT  139 

most  important  class.  The  second  class  is  the  durum  wheats, 
Triticum  sativum  durum.  It  is  marked  by  its  resistance  to 
drouth  and  by  the  hardness  of  the  grain.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  this  type,  though  few  are  specially  adapted  to 
this  country.  The  third  class  is  known  as  club  wheat, 
Triticum  sativum  compactum.  The  wheats  of  this  type  have 
short,  compact  heads  and  produce  very  soft  grain.  They 
are  commonly  grown  in  the  Pacific  states.  The  fourth  class 
of  wheat,  Triticum  sativum  dicoccum,  is  known  as  emmer, 
and  is  grown  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country.  This 
differs  from  common  wheat  in  that  the  hull  remains  with  the 
kernel  when  it  is  thrashed  and  the  stems  are  pithy  instead  of 
hollow.  When  growing,  it  appears  very  similar  to  common 
wheat.  From  an  economic  standpoint,  emmer  is  best  com- 
pared with  barley  or  oats,  as  it  is  grown  in  this  country  only 
for  feed.  It  is  better  adapted  to  dry-land  conditions  than 
common  wheat,  and  has  an  important  place  where  the  rain- 
fall is  limited.  In  the  humid  wheat  sections,  however,  it  is 
not  usually  a  profitable  crop,  since  it  does  not  yield  so  much 
feed  to  the  acre  as  barley. 

Varieties  of  common  wheat  are  numerous,  but  variety 
names,  as  in  other  common  crops,  are  very  misleading  because 
of  the  natural  variation  due  to  wide  distribution. 

176.  Winter  Wheat.  From  60  to  70  per  cent  of  the 
wheat  grown  in  the  United  States  is  winter  wheat;  a  large 
proportion  of  this  is  of  the  Turkey  Red  variety,  which  is  the 
standard  hard  winter  wheat.  The  hard  winter  wheats  are 
grown  largely  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska;  the  soft  winter 
varieties  are  produced  in  the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Fultz,  a  soft  winter  variety,  seems  to  find  wide 
favor  among  growers  of  that  type  of  wheat.  The  leading 


140 


FIELD  CROPS 


states  in  the  production  of  winter  wheat  are  Kansas,  Indiana, 
Nebraska,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Pennsylvania,  Oklahoma, 
and  Texas;  in  these  states  over  60  per  cent  of  the  winter  wheat 
crop  of  the  United  States  is  produced. 

177.  Spring  Wheat.    Minnesota  and  North  and  South 
Dakota  produce  about  70  per  cent  of  the  spring  wheat  of  the 


I 

w-  1 


Fig.  44.     Good  heads  of  beardless  spring  wheat. 

United  States,  a  very  large  proportion  of  which  is  either  of 
the  fife  or  bluestem  type.  There  are  numerous  varieties 
of  these  two  types,  but  in  each  type  the  varieties  are  so  much 
alike  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  distinguish  differ- 
ences. These  types  do  not  differ  materially  in  composition 
or  value.  They  are  both  standard  hard  spring  wheats. 
In  some  sections  one  kind  is  preferred,  while  elsewhere  the 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  WHEAT  141 

other  seems  to  be  more  satisfactory.  The  chief  differences 
are  in  the  chaff  and  the  habit  of  shattering.  Bluestem 
wheat  has  hairy  chaff,  while  the  chaff  of  fife  wheat  is  smooth; 
the  bluestem  type  is  a  little  more  inclined  to  shatter  when 
mature  than  the  fife. 

178.  Velvet  Chaff.    Velvet  chaff  is  a  name  given  to  a 
distinct  type  of  fife  wheat  which  is  becoming  quite  general 
in  a  few  localities  in  the  spring  wheat  belt.    This  type  of 
wheat  is  bearded,  is  from  five  to  ten  days  earlier  than  com- 
mon fife  or  bluestem,  and  in  some  instances  yields  better. 
There  are  several  varieties,  but  all  are  similar  in  quality  of 
product.    The  grain  weighs  well  to  the  bushel,  usually  two 
or  three  pounds  more  than  common  spring  wheat ;  but  owing 
to  the  poor  quality  of  its  gluten,  it  does  not  produce  quite  so 
good  a  quality  of  flour  as  fife  and  bluestem. 

179.  Durum  Wheat.    Durum  wheat  is  grown  to  some 
extent  in  the  spring  wheat  belt,  and  as  a  spring  wheat  in  the 
winter  wheat  belt.     It  is  not  a  valuable  wheat  for  flour- 
making,  though  a  very  fair  quality  of  bread  may  be  made 
from  its  flour.     Its  chief  value  is  in  the  production  of  maca- 
roni.   In  the  best  spring  wheat  sections,  durum  wheat  does 
not  yield  so  well  or  produce  grain  of  so  good  quality  as  it  does 
in  the  somewhat  drier  sections.    It  seems  best  adapted  to 
the  semiarid  region,  where  there  is  not   sufficient  moisture 
to  produce  satisfactory  crops  of  common  spring  wheat. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CROP 

180.  World  Production.    The  countries  leading  in  the 
production  of  wheat  in  1910,  with  the  acreage  and  production 
of  each  according  to  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  are  shown  in  the  table 
which  follows. 


142 


FIELD  CROPS 


Table  VI.     Leading  countries  in  the  production  of  wheat,  with  the 
acreage  and  production  of  each  in  1910. 


Country 

Area 

Production 

European  Russia 

Acres 

62  620  000 

Bushels 

699  413  000 

United  States  .   . 

49  205  000 

695  443  000 

British  India  

27,919  000 

357  941  000 

France  

16,120,000 

268  364  000 

Austria-Hungary  

12,779,000 

255,162,000 

Italy 

11  758  000 

153  337  000 

Canada 

9  294  000 

149  990  000 

Argentina  .  . 

14,422  000 

131  010  000 

Australasia  ... 

6,897,000 

102  197,000 

The  total  world  production  of  wheat  was  about  4,000,- 
000,000  bushels,  or  about  the  same  as  that  of  oats  or  corn. 
Owing  to  the  higher  weight  to  the  bushel,  there  were  more 
pounds  of  wheat  produced  than  of  either  corn  or  oats,  while 
the  total  cash  value  of  the  crop  was  greater  than  that  of 
corn  and  oats  combined. 

In  the  five  years  from  1906  to  1910  the  average  annual 
production  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  was  693,000,000 
bushels,  or  about  19  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop.  During 
the  same  years,  European  Russia  averaged  annually  556,- 
000,000  bushels;  France,  329,000,000  bushels;  British  India, 
301,000,000  bushels;  and  Italy,  170,000,000  bushels. 

181.  Production  in  United  States.  In  the  United  States, 
wheat  ranks  third  in  the  number  of  bushels  produced,  the 
yield  of  both  oorn  and  oats  being  much  larger,  but  in  the 
weight  of  the  crop,  wheat  ranks  second  to  corn.  Wheat 
is  likewise  second  to  corn  among  the  cereals  in  total  value, 
but  both  hay  and  cotton,  as  well  as  corn,  outclass  wheat  in 
this  respect.  For  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911  an 
average  of  46,716,000  acres  have  been  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  wheat;  the  annual  production  averaged  652,- 


THE  LEADING  WHEAT  STATES 


143 


702,000  bushels,  valued  at  $533,348,000.     The  ten  states 
leading  in  the  production  of  wheat  are  given  below : 


Table  VII.  Average  annual  acreage,  acre  yield,  production,  and 
farm  value  of  wheat  in  the  ten  states  of  largest  production,  1902 
to  1911,  inclusive. 


Acreage 

Average 
yield 
per  acre 

Production 

Farm  value 
Dec.  1. 

Kansas  
North  Dakota    .  . 
Minnesota  
Nebraska  
South  Dakota  .  .  . 
Indiana 

Acres 

5,431,000 
6,067,000 
4,922,000 
2,564,000 
3,309,000 
2,199,000 
2,101,000 
1,990,000 
1,526,000 
2,274,000 
14,333,000 

Bushels 

12.7 
11.6 
13.3 
17.4 
11.8 
15.2 
15.5 
16.1 
21.4 
14.1 
14.3 

Bushels 

69,401,000 
67,756,000 
64,817,000 
44,486,000 
38,779,000 
33,810,000 
32,601,000 
32,293,000 
32,275,000 
30,876,000 
205,608,000 

Dollars 

53,459,000 
53,433,000 
52,659,000 
32,034,000 
29,560,000 
29,149,000 
27,755,000 
28,432,000 
24,409,000 
24,880,000 
177,578,000 

Illinois 

Ohio 

Washington 

Missouri  

All  others    

The  United  States 

46,716,000 

14.0 

652,702,000 

533,348,000 

HANS.  I 
N.DAK.l 
MINN.  I 
NEBR.  I 
S.DAK.l 
I  NO. 
ILL. 
OHIO  I 
WA5H.\ 
MO.      I 
PENN.  I 
OK  LA.  I 
CALIF. 
MICH.  I 
ORE. 


/0.64% 


6.82% 


5.9*% 

I  5.18 '% 

4.99% 
\  4.95% 
\4.95% 
4.73% 


3.85% 

2.59% 

2.4891 
2.35% 
2.22% 


ff.  93% 


Fig.  45.     The  percentage  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  produced 
in  the  fifteen  states  of  largest  production,  1902-1911. 


144  FIELD  CROPS 

The  table  given  and  the  diagram  (Fig.  45)  show  Kansas, 
North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  South  Dakota 
to  be  the  leading  wheat  states.  These'five  states  produce  44 
per  cent  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States.  The 
ten  states  included  in  Table  VII  produce  67  per  cent  of  the 
entire  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States,  which  locates  the 
wheat  belt  in  the  North  Central  states. 

The  importance  of  the  crop  in  the  various  states  is  best 
shown  by  the  proportion  of  the  improved  farm  acreage  which 
is  annually  devoted  to  it.  Slightly  more  than  one-tenth 
(10.47  per  cent)  of  the  improved  farm  acreage  of  the  United 

KANS.  ••••••••••••••••  19.79  % 

N.  0/1  /f.H^HMHBHHHBHM^HII^^^MMH^BBMB^MHi  +0.  33  % 


Fig.  46.  Percentage  of  improved  farm  land  which  is  annually  planted 
to  wheat  in  the  ten  states  of  largest  production  and  in  the  United  States, 
1902-1911. 

States  was  devoted  to  wheat  from  1902  to  1911.  A  larger 
proportion  of  the  improved  land  was  sown  to  this  crop  in 
North  Dakota  than  in  any  other  state,  as  shown  by  Fig.  46. 
In  Washington,  Minnesota,  and  South  Dakota  one-fourth  or 
more  of  the  improved  farm  land  was  devoted  to  wheat;  in 
Kansas,  about  one-fifth. 

182.  Yield  to  the  Acre.  The  most  important  wheat- 
producing  states  are  by  no  means  the  states  with  the  highest 
acre  yields;  in  fact,  the  reverse  is  usually  true.  Of  the  ten 
leading  wheat-producing  states,  Washington  holds  first  place 
cxq.  the  basis  of  acre  yield;  Nebraska,  second;  Ohio,  third; 


SOILS  FOR  WHEAT  145 

Illinois,  fourth;  Indiana,  fifth;  Missouri,  sixth;  Minnesota, 
seventh;  Kansas,  eighth;  South  Dakota,  ninth;  and  North 
Dakota,  tenth.  The  average  yield  in  the  United  States  for 
the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911  was  14  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Nevada  has  the  highest  average  yield  for  the  same  period, 
28.4  bushels,  but  this  is  only  on  30,000  to  40,000  acres. 
South  Carolina  has  the  lowest  average  yield,  8.3  bushels. 
Under  favorable  conditions,  yields  of  30  bushels  or  more  an 
acre  may  be  obtained  in  any  of  the  states.  The  average  is 
kept  down  by  poor  methods  of  culture,  insects,  diseases, 
storms,  and  unfavorable  weather  conditions.  The  average 
value  of  the  wheat  crop  to  the  acre  is  not  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  yield,  for  the  price  per  bushel  varies  greatly.  Nevada 
has  the  highest  average  acre  value  of  wheat,  $27.52,  and 
Arkansas  the  lowest,  $8.80. 

SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

183.  Soils.  Wheat  is  adapted  to  a  very  wide  range  of 
soils,  and  grain  of  excellent  quality  is  produced  on  very  light 
as  well  as  on  very  heavy  soils.  The  type  of  soil  does  not  seem 
to  affect  the  crop  greatly,  either  in  quality  or  quantity,  so 
long  as  the  needed  plant  food  and  moisture  are  available. 
These  conditions  may  be  supplied  on  almost  any  arable  soil, 
by  good  methods  of  cropping  and  tillage.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, the  better  the  soil  the  better  the  yield,  unless  the  land  is 
so  rich  that  the  crop  lodges  before  it  matures,  in  which  case 
grain  of  poor  quality  is  sure  to  be  produced. 

The  best  wheat  sections  are  in  that  portion  of  the  tem- 
perate zones  where  there  is  an  annual  rainfall  of  from  20  to  40 
inches,  distributed  quite  uniformly  throughout  the  growing 
season.  Wheat,  however,  is  grown  in  the  Pacific  states, 
where  most  of  the  rainfall  comes  during  the  winter  and  very 
little  of  it  during  the  growing  season;  but  soils  in  this  section 


146  FIELD  CROPS 

have  great  water-holding  capacity,  which  enables  them  to 
hold  the  moisture  till  it  is  needed  by  the  crop.  Wheat  is 
also  grown  under  irrigation  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

184.  Manures  and  Fertilizers.  Grain  is  the  chief 
product  of  the  wheat  crop;  it  removes  from  the  farm  con- 
siderable amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 
Most  of  the  soils  in  the  wheat  belt  have  a  much  larger  supply 
of  potash  than  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  as  the 
potash  is  used  more  largely  in  the  production  of  straw,  which 
as  a  rule  remains  on  the  farm,  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  are 
first  depleted.  Where  live  stock  is  kept,  clover  grown,  and 
the  land  manured  frequently,  satisfactory  yields  of  wheat 
may  be  obtained  on  naturally  fertile  soils  for  generations 
without  the  .addition  of  commercial  fertilizers.  But  where 
wheat  is  the  main  crop  or  where  wheat  and  other  exhaustive 
crops  are  grown  and  land  is  seldom  if  ever  manured,  it  ulti- 
mately becomes  necessary  to  add  to  the  soil  some  kind  of 
commercial  fertilizer  that  will  supply  the  needed  elements  as 
they  become  deficient.  Clover  may  be  grown  to  add  nitro- 
gen, and  clover,  green  manure,  and  stable  manure  will  main- 
tain the  supply  of  vegetable  matter.  Where  this  is  done, 
about  the  only  element  that  must  be  supplied  by  means  of 
commercial  fertilizer  is  phosphorus. 

In  the  East  and  South,  where  the  soils  have  become  worn 
by  long  continued  cropping,  commercial  fertilizers  are  usually 
applied  for  each  crop.  Likewise,  in  some  of  the  Central 
states  the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  becoming 
necessary  in  many  localities  to  insure  profitable  yields. 
The  kind  and  amount  of  fertilizer  most  profitable  to  apply 
can  be  determined  only  by  careful  trials  in  each  locality  and 
on  each  type  of  soil.  A  very  common  practice  is  to  apply  at 
seeding  time  from  200  to  300  pounds  of  fertilizer  to  the  acre, 
containing  about  2  per  cent  available  nitrogen,  8  per  cent 


PREPARING  THE  LAND  FOR  WHEAT 


147 


available  phosphoric  acid,  and  2  per  cent  potash.  In  many 
localities,  where  a  supply  of  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen 
is  maintained  by  growing  clover  and  by  applying  stable 
manure,  the  application  of  either  raw  or  treated  rock  phos- 
phate is  sufficient  to  provide  for  satisfactory  yields. 

GROWING  THE  CROP 

185.  Preparation  of  the  Land.  .  The  preparation  of  the 
land  does  not  differ  materially  for  winter  or  spring  wheat, 


Fig.  47.  The  disk  harrow  is  one  of  the  most  effective  tools  to  use  in 
preparing  a  good  seed  bed.  Double  disking,  as  shown  here,  leaves  a  level 
surface. 

though  the  crops  are  seeded  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 
The  main  object  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  wheat  is  to 
produce  a  mellow,  firm  seed  bed  with  sufficient  loose  soil  on 
the  surface  to  check  the  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture,  and  to 
provide  a  hospitable  place  for  the  plants  to  grow.  Where 
possible,  land  is  plowed  for  wheat,  though  sometimes  the  crop 


148  FIELD  CROPS 

is  seeded  on  disked  corn  or  stubble  land.  The  better  practice, 
however,  is  to  plow  the  land.  To  fit  newly-plowed  land  for 
winter  wheat  seeding,  it  is  necessary  to  harrow  the  soil  at 
once  very  thoroughly,  to  pack  down  the  lower  part  of  the  fur- 
row slice  so  that  it  will  not  dry  out.  The  object  of  this 
harrowing  is  to  retain  sufficient  moisture  in  the  furrow  slice 
for  germination,  which  is  not  done  if  the  soil  is  left  loose  and 
lumpy.  It  is  also  desirable  to  harrow  and  disk  the  plowing 
sufficiently  to  pack  the  lower  part  of  the  furrow  slice  so  that 
the  moisture  in  the  subsoil  may  be  brought  by  capillarity  to 
the  surface,  where  the  grain  is  planted  and  the  roots  begin 
their  growth. 

If  spring  wheat  is  to  be  sown  and  the  land  is  fall-plowed, 
it  is  not  desirable  to  harrow  it  during  the  fall.  If  the  soil  is 
left  rough,  it  is  acted  on  more  fully  by  the  elements,  is  in 
better  condition  to  take  up  the  moisture  that  falls,  holds 
snow  better,  and  is  more  easily  prepared  in  the  spring  than 
if  it  is  harrowed  smooth  in  the  fall.  In  the  semiarid  regions 
where  the  soil  must  be  thoroughly  cultivated  one  season  and 
enough  moisture  stored  in  it  to  grow  a  crop  the  following 
year,  the  plan  just  given  would  not  be  advisable,  for  it  is 
necessary  to  harrow  after  every  rain  in  order  to  retain  the 
moisture  which  falls. 

To  prepare  fall-plowed  land  for  wheat  in  the  spring,  thor- 
ough disking  and  harrowing  are  necessary.  Spring-plowed 
land  is  prepared  for  spring  wheat  in  the.  same  manner  as  fall- 
plowed  land  for  winter  wheat. 

186.  Preparing  Seed  for  Planting.  Wheat  grown  in  the 
vicinity,  graded  to  maximum  weight  and  quality,  and  free 
from  foul  seed,  has  been  shown  by  numerous  experiments  to 
be  the  best  that  is  possible  to  obtain  for  the  main  crop.  On 
many  farms,  a  great  many  weed  seeds  and  seeds  of  grain  of 
inferior  quality  are  sown  with  the  seed  wheat.  It  is  not  rea- 


GRADING  SEED  WHEAT 


149 


sonable  to  expect  better  grain  in  the  harvested  crop  than  is 
sown.  Wheat  grown  continuously  in  one  community  is 
often  said  to  run  out,  and  frequently  the  practice  of  chang- 
ing seed  grain  every  few  years  is  followed.  This  is  not  the 
best  practice,  for  it  has  been  shown  beyond  any  question  of 
doubt  that  if  the  home-grown  grain  is  carefully  graded  each 
year  and  the  best  used  for  seed,  it  will  not  run  out,  but  may 
be  gradually  improved. 

On  the  general  farm,  there  is  not  sufficient  time  to  permit 
the  careful  breeding  and  selection  of  grain  as  is  practiced  by 

careful  plant  breeders; 
but  it  is  entirely  practical 
to  select  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  best  grain  by 
running  a  considerable 
quantity  of  it  through  a 
common  fanning  mill, 
and  in  this  way  selecting 
the  heaviest  and  plumpest 
kernels. 

187.  Fanning  Mill 
Selection.  Fanning  mills 
separate  grain  by  size  and 
shape  of  kernel,  and  by 
weight  of  kernel.  In  some  makes  of  mills  one  of  these 
methods  is  employed,,  and  in  others  both  are  used.  The 
mill  which  separates  by  only  one  of  these  means  can  not 
do  as  satisfactory  work  as  one  in  which  both  are  used. 
With  a  mill  using  both  methods,  the  heavy  and  light  kernels 
of  wheat  can  be  separated;  the  heavy  kernels  can  then  be 
run  over  a  screen,  of  the  proper  size  so  that  the  smaller  ones 
will  be  taken  out  and  only  the  larger  ones  left  for  seed.  In 
this  way  the  very  best  seed  grain  can  be  obtained. 


Fig.    48. 
showing  a  method  of  grading 


Diagram    of    fanning    mill, 
ethod  of  grading  seed 
The  wind  blast  from  the  fan  at  the  right 


grain. 


blows  the  chaff  and  light  grain  out  at  the 
left;  the  heavier  grain  falls  on  screen  3, 
through  which  the  smaller  kernels  fall, 
leaving  the  large,  heavy  kernels  for  seed. 


150  FIELD  CROPS 

It  is  known  that  in  a  herd  of  cattle  some  individuals  are 
superior  to  others.  It  is  as  reasonable  to  expect  that  in  a 
large  number  of  wheat  plants  or  wheat  kernels  the  same 
variation  will  be  found.  Careful  observation  of  a  handful 
of  wheat  will  convince  one  of  this  fact.  It  is  to  be  expected 
that  in  the  field  where  thousands  of  individual  kernels  are 
sown,  some  of  them  will  be  better  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
other  conditions  than  others.  Those  best  adapted  will 
naturally  make  the  most  perfect  growth,  and  will  accordingly 
produce  the  most  perfect  kernels.  If  the  most  perfect 
kernels  are  graded  out  by  means  of  a  fanning  mill,  as  sug- 
gested, then  seed  from  the  individual  plants  best  adapted  to 
the  field  and  climatic  conditions  is  obtained.  Thus  one 
may  easily  and  rapidly  grade  his  seed  and  maintain  it  at  a 
high  standard,  or  even  improve  it. 

Seed  wheat  cleaned  and  graded  as  just  suggested  and  then 
treated  for  smut  (Sec.  205),  is  good  seed  to  sow. 

188'.  Obtaining  New  Varieties.  It  is  often  desirable  to 
obtain  new  and  improved  varieties  of  grain.  However,  the 
main  part  of  the  crop  should  be  sown  with  seed  graded  from 
home-grown  stock,  and  any  new  and  promising  variety 
tried  in  a  small  way  for  at  least  two  years,  in  comparison 
with  such  carefully  graded  seed.  Unless  the  new  variety 
proves  superior  to  the  old  one  under  the  conditions  of  the 
farm,  it-of  course  will  be  better  not  to  change. 

189;  Sowing.  Better  results  are  usually  obtained  by 
sowing  wheat  with  the-  drill  than  by  sowing  broadcast. 
The  drill  covers  all  the  kernels,  which  is  not  possible  with  a 
broadcast  seeder,  and  all  kernels  are  placed  at  a  uniform 
depth.  If  judgment  is  used  in  running  the  drill,  the  seed  is 
sown  just  deep  enough  to  insure  sufficient  moisture  for  germi- 
nation, and  not  so  deep  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  the  plants 
to  get  through  the  surface  soil.  When  grain  is  sown  broad- 


TIME  OF  SOWING  151 

cast  a  portion  is  left  on  top,  where  under  ordinary  conditions 
it  will  not  grow,  and  where  it  is  readily  picked  up  by  birds. 
Drilling  also  insures  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  the  seed. 
190.  Time  of  Sowing.  The  time  of  sowing  winter  wheat 
varies  with  the  locality.  It  is  desirable  to  sow  it  early 
enough  so  that  considerable  root  growth  can  be  made  before 
winter.  In  the  northern  wheat  regions,  winter  wheat  is 
usually  seeded  in  September.  Farther  south,  it  may  be 
sown  much  later.  Spring  wheat,  as  a  rule,  does  best  when 
sown  early  in  the  season.  Wheat  will  germinate  at  a  corn- 


Fig.  49.    Plowing,  seeding,  and    harrowing    at  one    operation.    A  common 
method  of  sowing  wheat  on  the  large  wheat  farms  of  the  Western  states. 

paratively  low  temperature,  and  a  crop  of  wheat  is  very  sel- 
dom injured  by  cold  or  freezing  weather.  On  this  account, 
the  general  practice  is  to  sow  wheat  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
a  good  seed  bed  can  be  prepared.  When  wheat  is  sown  early, 
the  cool  weather  of  spring  causes  the  development  of  a  heavy 
root  system  and  induces  stooling;  while  if  it  is  seeded  late, 
the  stems  shoot  up  so  quickly  that  there  is  little  chance  for 
stooling.  Other  reasons  for  early  seeding  are  to  avoid  as 
much  as  possible  the  ravages  of  diseases  and  insects  and  to 


152 


FIELD  CROPS 


avoid  the  damage  of  storms,  which  are  usually  more  severe 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season. 

191.  Harrowing.  Harrowing  grain  after  it  is  up  is  not  a 
common  practice,  though  it  sometimes  gives  very  good 
results.  Spring  wheat  is  sometimes  harrowed  after  it  is  up, 


Fig.  50.  Cutting  wheat  with  binders  on  a  North  Dakota  farm.  Note  the 
rape  in  the  wheat  stubble  in  the  foreground.  After  harvest,  sheep  are  turned 
into  the  field  to  pasture  on  the  rape  and  the  gleanings. 

especially  if  there  is  a  tendency  for  a  crust  to  form  on  top  of 
the  soil.  Harrowing  breaks  up  this  crust  by  forming  a  slight 
dust  mulch,  which  aids  in  checking  the  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture and  also  aids  in  destroying  weeds.  Some  of  the  grain  is 


HARVESTING  WHEAT  153 

injured  by  this  practice,  which  no  doubt  accounts  for  its 
being  so  uncommon.  Drilled  wheat  only  should  be  harrowed 
and  the  harrow  should  be  run  in  the  direction  of  the  drill 
rows  and  not  across  them. 

HARVESTING  AND  THRASHING 

192.  Harvesting.    With  the  exception  of  a  comparatively 
small  acreage  in  the  Pacific  states,  wheat  is  harvested  as 
soon  as  it  is  ripe.    This  is  done  to  avoid  loss  by  crinkling  and 
shattering  and  from  storms.     Grain  is  usually  cut  with 
binders  and  handled  in  the  bundle.     In  a  few  places  headers 
are  used;  that  is,  machines  that  simply  cut  off  the  heads  of  the 
wheat,  and  in  that  case  the  grain  is  handled  loose.     In  the 
Pacific  states,  where  there  is  usually  no  rain  for  several  weeks 
during  the  harvesting  season,  the  grain  is  allowed  to  become 
thoroughly  ripe  and  dry,  and  then  it  is  harvested  with  a  com- 
bined header  and  thrashing  machine,  or  "  combine,"  (Fig.  51). 
Such  machines  can  not  be  used  throughout  the  main  wheat 
sections  of  the  United  States,  owing  to  unfavorable  weather. 

193.  Shocking  Wheat.    One  of  the  qualities  desired  in 
good  milling  wheat  is  a  bright  color.     If  wheat  is  exposed 
to  rain  and  dew  after  it  is  ripe,  it  loses  this  desirable  bright- 
ness.   On  this  account  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  shock  wheat 
as  soon  as  it  is  cut,  and  to  cap  the  shocks  so  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  heads  will  be  protected  from  the  weather  and 
thus  retain  the  bright  color  of  the  kernels. 

There  are  two  types  of  shocks  well  adapted  to  the  pro- 
tection of  wheat.  One  is  known  as  the  nine-bundle  round 
shock.  It  is  made  by  setting  up  one  pair  of  bundles,  then 
setting  up  a  second  pair  so  that  they  lean  against  opposite 
sides  of  the  first  two  bundles.  This  will  make  a  four-bundle 
shock,  one  bundle  at  each  corner.  The  next  four  bundles  are 
set  against  the  first  four,  just  filling  in  the  open  spaces 


154 


FIELD  CROPS 


SHOCKING  WHEAT 


155 


Fig.  52.  A  well-built  wheat  shock  which  will 
withstand  storms  and  in  which  the  grain  is  well 
protected  from  weathering. 


between  the  bundles. 
The  whole  is  then 
capped  with  one 
bundle  which  is 
spread  out  at  both 
the  top  and  butt  ends 
to  cover  as  much  of 
the  shock  as  possible. 
Care  must  be  exer- 
cised in  placing  the 
cap  bundle  that  the 
butt  does  not  extend 
out  over  the  side  of 
the  shock  so  that  the 
wind  can  get  under 

the  bundle  and  blow  it  off.     It  is  not  so  likely  to  blow 

a  bundle  off  from  the  head  end,  because  the  heads  are 

heavy  enough  so  that  when  the  shock  is  settled  they  will  lie 

down  against  the 

shock. 

The  other  type 

of  shock  is  known 

as  the  twelve- 
bundle   shock. 

This  is  made  by 

setting  three  pairs 

of   bundles   in   a 

row    against   one 

another,     usually 

setting    the    long 

way  of  the  shock 

north    and    SOUth;        Fig.  53.     A  poorly-built  wheat  shock  which  is  likely  to 
,  i          4.1       ,  >     blow  over  in  a  windstorm  and  in  which  much  of  the  grain 

then  the  tWO  Open    is  exposed  to  the  weather. 


156  FIELD  CROPS 

spaces  on  each  side  of  the  shock  are  filled  by  placing  two 
bundles  against  each  side.  Two  bundles  are  used  for  the 
cap.  These  bundles  are  laid  lengthwise  of  the  shock,  and 
care  is  taken  so  that  the  butts  of  the  bundles  do  not  extend 
out  over  the  shock.  This  is  a  very  good  form  of  shock  for 
any  kind  of  grain.  Figure  52  shows  a  well-built  shock, 
while  Fig.  53  shows  a  poorly-built  one. 

194.  Stacking.    Much  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United 
States  is  stacked  before  it  is  thrashed.     A  stack  is  usually 


Fig.   54.     Stacks  of     wheat     awaiting   the  thrashing     machine.     A   better 
quality  of  grain  is  usually  obtained  from  stacking  than  from  thrashing  from 

made  by  starting  a  round  shock  and  continuing  to  lean 
bundles  against  it  until  a  bottom  of  the  desired  size  is  made. 
The  stack  is  then  built  up  by  laying  the  bundles  horizontally 
in  tiers  beginning  from  the  outside,  the  inner  tiers  lapping 
over  the  next  outer  tier,  thus  holding  the  stack  together. 
A  grain  stack  is  usually  built  up  quite  level  for  the  lower  6 
to  10  feet.  Each  outer  tier  of  bundles  is  extended  out  over 
the  stack  a  few  inches  so  that  the  stack  is  larger  in  circum- 
ference at  a  height  of  from  4  to  8  feet  than  it  is  on  the  ground. 


THRASHING  WHEAT 


157 


This  projection  is  called  "the  bulge."  The  bulge  permits 
the  outer  edge  of  the  stack  to  settle  more  than  the  center, 
which  gives  a  slant  to  all  outer  bundles  so  that  they  ma] 
shed  water.  When  the  stack  has  been  laid  out  to  the  size 
and  height  desired,  the  middle  is  then  filled  quite  full,  by 
putting  in  additional  courses  of  bundles,  so  as  to  give  a  good 
slant  to  all  of  the  outside  bundles.  Each  succeeding  outside 
tier  is  then  drawn  in  from  4  to  6  inches  farther  than  the  tier 
next  under  it.  In  this  way  the  stack  grows  gradually  smaller 
as  it  gets  higher,  until  it  is  finally  finished  in  a  nicely  rounded 


Fig.   55.     Combined   harvester   and   thrasher   drawn   by   traction   engine.     A 
machine  of  the  same  type  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  51. 

peak.  The  top  bundles  are  usually  held  in  place  by  pushing 
a  stick  8  or  10  feet  long,  sharpened  at  both  ends,  down  into 
the  center  of  the  stack.  Sometimes  an  inverted  bundle,  with 
the  band  near  the  butt,  is  put  down  over  the  sharp  stick, 
as  the  final  cap  of  the  stack.  In  some  cases  the  peak  is 
covered  with  a  forkful  of  hay.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
make  the  top  of  the  stack  too  steep,  or  it  is  likely  to  be  blown 
off. 

195.  Thrashing.     Wheat   may   be   thrashed    from   the 
shock  or  stack  as  desired.     Thrashing  from  the  shock  is 


158 


FIELD  CROPS 


cheaper,  and  is  desirable  if  one  can  get  the  thrashing  machine 
at  the  proper  time  so  the  work  can  be  done  as  soon  as  the 
grain  is  in  fit  condition.  On  farms  of  moderate  size,  where 
the  thrashing  is  hired,  it  is  seldom  possible  to  get  the  machine 


Fig.  56. 


An  elevator  where  wheat  is  stored  and  from  which  it  is  loaded  into 
boats  for  shipment. 


just  when  desired.  The  difference  in  cost  is  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  taking  chances  of  injury  to  the  grain  by  bad  weather, 
and  it  is  better  to  stack  wheat  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough 
after  cutting  than  to  take  chances  by  waiting  for  a  machine. 
When  wheat  is  stacked,  it  goes  through  what  is  called  a 


MARKETING  WHEAT  159 

sweating  process;  that  is,  it  warms  up  slightly,  becomes 
moist,  and  the  straw  gets  tough  and  remains  so  for  two  to 
three  weeks.  Wheat  is  believed  to  have  a  slightly  better 
color  if  allowed  to  go  through  this  sweating  process  in  the 
stack.  Many  people  prefer  to  stack  their  wheat  before  it  is 
thrashed  on  this  account. 

196.  Storing.    Wheat  may  be  satisfactorily  stored  in  any 
bin  or  room  that  will  protect  it  from  rain,  if  it  is  dry  when 
stored.    If  wheat  is  thrashed  soon  after  it  is  cut,  it  will 
sweat  in  the  bin,  and  in  that  condition  it  is  not  safe  to  put 
large  quantities  of  the  grain  in  one  place,  for  it  is  likely  to 
heat  and  be  injured  in  quality.    After  grain  has  been  stacked 
for  three  or  four  weeks,  it  has  then  gone  through  this  "sweat," 
and  may  be  safely  stored  in  large  bins.  v 

MARKETING  AND  MARKET  GRADES 

197.  Marketing.    The  usual  practice  is  to  market  the 
crop  soon  after  it  is  thrashed.     Farmers  occasionally  hold 
their  wheat  for  several  months  with  a  view  to  getting  better 
prices,  but  the  practice  as  a  rule  does  not  prove  profitable. 
It  is  of  necessity  a  great  deal  of  a  gambling  problem,  because 
no  one  can  tell  what  the  price  of  wheat  may  be  in  the  future. 
There  is  considerable  shrinkage  in  wheat  in  storage,  for  it 
loses  some  moisture,  and  there  is  also  some  mechanical  loss 
due  to  mice,  leakage,  etc.    Another  loss  from  holding  is  the 
loss  of  the  earning  power  of  the  money  represented  by  the 
value  of  the  wheat.     If  one  is  to  figure  on  the  shrinkage  by 
loss  of  moisture,  the  mechanical  loss,  and  the  interest  on 
the  money  tied  up  in  the  wheat,  he  will  lose  more  times  by 
holding  than  he  will  gain. 


160  FIELD  CROPS 

198.  Market  Grades.  The  market  grades  of  wheat,  as 
adopted  by  the  Grain  Dealers'  National  Association,  include: 

White  Winter  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Red  Winter  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Hard  Winter  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Northern  Spring  wheat1,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Spring  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Durum  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Velvet  Chaff  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Pacific  Coast  Red  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3. 

Pacific  Coast  White  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3. 

The  complete  description  of  the  grades  included  in  one 
class  of  wheat  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  differences  in 
the  grades.  The  descriptions  of  the  different  classes  natur- 
ally vary  from  the  ones  here  given  according  to  the  particular 
class.  The  variation  is  largely  in  the  designation  of  the  kind 
of  wheat  of  which  the  grade  is  composed,  and  the  weight 
per  bushel  requisite  for  the  grade.  Thus,  No.  1  Hard 
Winter  wheat  must  weigh  61  pounds  to  the  bushel,  while 
No.  1  Spring  wheat  need  only  weigh  59  pounds. 

No.  1  Hard  Winter  wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure,  hard 
winter  wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet,  and  well  cleaned,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  61  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Hard  Winter  wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  dry,  sound,  sweet,  and  clean,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  59  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Hard  Winter  wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  not  clean  or  plump  enough  for  No.  2 
and  weigh  not  less  than  56  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Hard  Winter  wheat  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors.  It  may  be  damp,  musty  or  dirty, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

iThis  class  also  includes  a  grade  known  as  "No.  1  Hard  Spring  wheat,"  which 
ranks  above  No.  1  Northern. 


WHEAT  PRICES  161 

199.  Exports  and  Imports.  The  principal  countries  hav- 
ing a  surplus  of  wheat  for  export  are  Russia,  United  States, 
Argentina,  Roumania,  Canada,  and  Australia.  The  total 
exports  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  of  the  world  amounted  to 
537,000,000  bushels  annually  for  the  five  years  from  1905 
to  1909  inclusive.  Of  this  amount,  Russia  exported  131,- 
000,000  bushels;  the  United  States,  120,000,000  bushels, 
or  about  one-fifth  of  the  annual  crop;  and  Argentina,  109,- 
000,000  bushels.  The  principal  importing  countries  are  the 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and 


H* 


Fig.  57.  Wheat  in  sacks  awaiting  shipment  in  eastern  Oregon.  This 
method  is  practical  because  no  rain  is  to  be  expected  in  this  region  during  the 
harvest  season.  There  are  about  300,000  bushels  of  wheat  on  the  platform. 

Italy.  The  United  Kingdom  imports  209,000,000  bushels 
annually,  or  about  one-third  of  the  total  imports  of  the  world. 
200.  Prices.  The  average  farm  price  of  wheat  on  Decem- 
ber 1st  in  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years  from  1901  to 
1910  is  given  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture as  79.7  cents  per  bushel.  The  price  varied  during 
that  period  from  63  cents  in  1902  to  99  cents  in  1909.  The 
farm  price  of  wheat  varies  considerably  in  different  sections 
of  the  United  States,  depending  upon  the  local  supply  and 
demand  and  the  distance  from  market.  In  the  North 
Central  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  including  Minne- 


162  FIELD  CROP 8 

sota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska 
and  Kansas,  the  average  farm  price  was  75.1  cents  per  bushel. 
This  section  produces  about  one-half  of  the  wheat  crop  of 
the  United  States.  In  the  North  Atlantic  states,  where 
only  about  4  per  cent  of  the  wheat  acreage  of  the  United 
States  is  included,  the  average  farm  price  for  the  same  period 
was  97  cents  per  bushel.  In  the  Far  Western  states,  repre- 
senting about  10  per  cent  of  the  wheat  area  and  about  13 
per  cent  of  the  total  production  of  the  United  States,  the 
price  was  76.9  cents  per  bushel. 

201.  Cost  of  Production.  The  cost  of  producing  wheat 
naturally  varies  with  the  section  of  the  country,  the  rental 
value  of  the  land,  the  price  of  labor,  and  the  methods 
employed.  From  reports  made  by  more  than  five  thousand 
correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  tabulated  in  the  May, 
1911,  Crop  Reporter,  the  average  cost  of  producing  an  acre 
of  wheat  in  1909  in  the  United  States  was  $11.15.  Of  this 
total,  the  average  amount  expended  for  fertilizers  was  58 
cents;  preparation  of  the  land,  $2.11;  seed,  $1.42;  planting, 
46  cents;  harvesting,  $1.33;  preparing  for  market  (including 
thrashing),  $1.48;  miscellaneous,  48  cents;  land  rental  or 
interest  on  land  value,  $3.30.  As  the  average  yield  in  that 
year  was  17.2  bushels,  the  cost  of  production  was  66  cents  a 
bushel.  The  average  value  of  wheat  was  96  cents  a  bushel, 
leaving  a  return  of  30  cents  a  bushel,  or  $5.33  an  acre.  While 
these  figures  are  merely  estimates,  the  large  number  of  reports 
which  are  included  make  them  of  considerable  value.  A  pres- 
entation of  the  acre  value,  acre  cost,  and  value  less  cost 
for  the  different  sections,  as  shown  in  Table  VIII,  is  of 
interest. 


COST  OF  GROWING  WHEAT 


163 


Table  VIII.  Acre  value,  acre  cost,  and  value  less  cost  of  production 
of  wheat  in  various  sections  of  the  United  States  in  1909,  as 
reported  by  correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics. 


Section 

Acre  value 

Acre  cost 

Value  less 
cost 

North  Atlantic                                  .  . 

Dollars 

21.18 

Dollars 

17.05 

Dollars 

4.13 

South  Atlantic                              .... 

16.83 

13.10 

3.73 

South  Central                           

14.05 

10.35 

3.70 

East  North  Central  
West  North  Central  
Far  \Vestern 

18.31 
14.96 
22.01 

13.41 
9.74 
12.69 

4.90 
5.42 
9.32   ' 

United  States  

16.48 

11.15 

5.33 

From  Table  VIII,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction in  the  North  Atlantic  states  is  particularly  high. 
Every  item  of  expense  is  larger  than  the  average  for  the  entire 
country,  but  the  greatest  increase  is  in  fertilizers  and  cost  of 
preparation.  The  acre  value  is  also  high,  as  both  the  acre 
yield  and  the  price  per  bushel  are  above  the  average.  The 
largest  difference  between  value  and  cost  is  in  the  Far  Western 
states,  due  to  the  high  yield  and  the  moderate  cost  of  pro- 
duction. In  the  states  of  largest  production,  North  Dakota, 
Kansas,  and  Minnesota,  the  acre  cost  of  production  was 
$8.99,  $10.29,  and  $10  respectively.  More  accurate  figures 
covering  the  cost  of  production  in  Minnesota  are  contained 
in  Bureau  of  Statistics  Bulletin  No.  73,  in  which  the  average 
actual  cost  of  growing  an  aci  e  of  wheat  for  the  six  years  from 
1902  to  1907  on  several  farms  in  each  of  three  sections  of 
the  state  are  given.  The  average  cost  of  production  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  state  was  $9.86  an  acre;  in  the  south- 
western part,  $8.39;  and  in  the  northwestern  part,  $6.98. 
The  period  covered  by  these  figures  was  earlier  than  the  year 
for  which  the  figures  given  in  the  table  were  reported,  and  the 


164 


FIELD  CROPS 


cost  of  production  has  undoubtedly  increased,  so  that  the  cost 
of  $10  an  acre  for  Minnesota  in  1909  is  probably  very  close 
to  the  true  figure. 

Table  IX.  Average  cost  of  producing  wheat  on  several  farms  in  each 
of  three  sections  of  Minnesota  and  on  a  large  farm  in  that  state,  for 
the  six  years  from  1902  to  1907. 


Items 

South- 
eastern 
Minn. 

South- 
western 
Minn. 

North- 
western 
Minn. 

1800-acre 
farm 
N.  W.  Minn. 

Seed  
Cleaning  seed  

$1.35 

$1.005 
.035 

$  .828 
.030 

$   .928 

013 

Plowing 

1  256 

1  141 

1  130 

924 

Dragging 

239 

172 

281 

242 

&     &&    &  
{Seeding  

.371 

.236 

272 

227 

Weeding  

079 

032 

Cutting  (binder)  

.460 

.333 

.333 

306 

Twine  

.287 

.289 

.195 

190 

Shocking  

.218 

.110 

.135 

.127 

Stacking  

.789 

.539 

.481 

Stack  thrashing  (labor)  . 
Thrashing,  cash  cost  .  .  . 
Machinery  cost  
Land  rental. 

.528 
.346 
.517 
3.500 

.257 
.714 
.558 
3.000 

.312 
.430 
.371 
2.100 

a     .656 
b     .335 
.276 
1  800 

Total  

$9.861 

$8.389 

$6.977 

$6.056 

(a)  Shock  thrashing;  (b)  value  consumed  in  thrashing  outfit. 

The  variation  in  the  cost  per  acre  is  considerable  between 
the  large  farm  in  northwestern  Minnesota  and  the  farms  in 
southeastern  Minnesota.  A  large  part  of  this  variation  in 
cost  is  due  to  the  item  of  rent.  It  will  be  noticed,  however, 
that  nearly  all  of  the  items  are  lower,  due  largely  to  the  fields 
being  larger  and  more  level  than  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
state.  The  cost  of  producing  a  bushel  of  wheat  is  interesting, 
but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine,  owing  to  the  usual 
variation  in  yields.  The  use  of  the  above  figures  and  the 
average  yield  of  the  state  will  give  a  very  fair  basis  for  deter- 
mining the  cost  per  bushel 


DISEASES  OF  WHEAT  165 

DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

202.  Importance.    It  is  very  seldom  that  a  crop  of  wheat 
is  matured  without  being  affected  to  some  extent  by  some  of 
the  common  diseases  to  which  the  crop  is  subject,  as  scab, 
rust,  and  smut.    There  are  other  diseases,  but  so  little  is 
known  about  them  that  only  the  three  named  will  be  dis- 
cussed here.    Disease  causes  an  immense  loss  to  wheat  and 
other  cereal  crops  every  year,  and  considerable  may  be  done 
to  check  this  loss. 

203.  Scab.    Scab  is  a  fungous  disease  which  attacks  the 
glumes,  or  chaff,  of  the  wheat  plant.     It  is  not  very  common, 
but  sometimes  causes  considerable  loss,  for  shrunken  ker- 
nels result  when  the  wheat  plants  are  affected.     Usually 
only  a  few  glumes  are  affected,  and  these  are  identified  by 
pinkish  spots  at  the  base.    There  is  no  known  treatment  for 
this  disease,  except  that  it  has  been  recommended  that  the 
stubble  be  burned  if  wheat  is  to  follow  a  crop  of  wheat 
affected  with  scab. 

204.  Rust.    Rust  occasionally  causes  immense  damage 
to  the  wheat  crop,  sometimes  ruining  the  entire  crop  of  a 
considerable  part  of  the  country.     It  is  a  fungous  disease 
which  is  almost  always  present  to,  some  extent,  and  which, 
when  conditions  are  favorable,  may  spread  rapidly  and  cause 
the  straw  to  become  very  weak,  resulting  in  shrunken  kernels. 
There  are  two  kinds,  the  leaf  rust  and  the  stem  rust.    The 
former  is  nearly  always  present,  but  the  latter  is  by  far  the 
more  destructive.    Stem  rust  may  live  over  winter  on  the 
ripened  plant,  or  more  commonly  in  another  form  on  some 
other  plant.    The  spores  may  germinate  and  attack  the 
wheat  at  any  stage  during  its  growth.    There  is  no  remedy 
known  except  the  selection  of  varieties  of  wheat  which  are 
rust-resistant,  though  attempts  in  this  direction  have  not  as 


166  FIELD  CROPS 

yet  met  with  very  promising  results.  Other  helpful  meas- 
ures are  drainage,  the  use  of  early-maturing  varieties,  and 
the  eradication  of  weeds. 

205.  Smut.  Smut  is  a  fungous  disease  which  attacks 
the  wheat  crop  and  causes  very  heavy  loss.  The  smut 
plant  grows  within  the  wheat  plant  and  produces  masses  of 
spores  in  the  head  where  the  kernels  of  grain  should  be 
produced.  The  whole  head  is  generally  attacked,  and 
usually  all  the  heads  of  a  plant,  which  latter  fact  is  a  strong 
indication  that  the  infection  comes  from  the  seed,  or  enters 
the  plant  at  a  very  early  stage  in  its  growth.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  smut  that  attack  wheat;  one  the  loose  smut,  which 
destroys  the  entire  glume  and  kernel,  leaving  the  rachis 
naked;  and  the  stinking  smut,  which  simply  produces  within 
the  apparently  healthy  glumes  a  smut  ball  in  place  of  a 
kernel  of  wheat.  Both  of  these  smuts  are  very  destructive. 

Stinking  smut  is  controlled  by  treating  the  seed  before 
sowing.  The  most  simple  and  practical  method  is  to  moisten 
the  wheat  with  a  solution  made  by  mixing  1  pint  of  40  per 
cent  formaldehyde  with  45  gallons  of  water.  Wheat  may 
be  dipped  in  the  solution  in  baskets  or  loosely-woven  sacks. 
It  may  be  run  through  the  solution  by  means  of  a  smut 
machine,  or  the  solution  may  be  sprinkled  over  the  seed  by 
means  of  a  sprinkling  can,  the  wheat  being  shoveled  over 
several  times  during  the  process  to  insure  the  thorough 
moistening  of  each  kernel.  The  smut  spores  are  on  the  out- 
side of  the  kernels,  and  all  that  is  required  is  to  bring  the 
solution  in  contact  with  them.  Loose  smut  is  very  difficult 
to  handle,  as  the  spores  get  into  the  open  flowers  and  become 
enclosed  within  the  wheat  kernel.  The  only  treatment  that 
is  effective  is  the  modified  hot  water  treatment,  which  is 
extremely  difficult  to  apply.  The  wheat  is  soaked  for  four 


INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  WHEAT  167 

hours  in  cool  water,  because  heat  will  pass  through  the  kernel 
more  quickly  when  it  is  wet.  It  is  then  soaked  for  ten 
minutes  in  water  at  129°  Fahrenheit.  It  is  not  advisable, 
without  a  great  deal  of  experience,  to  treat  much  seed  in  this 
way,  as  the  germination  of  the  grain  is  likely  to  be  lowered  or 
destroyed.  Treat  only  enough  for  a  seed  plat,  and  get  clean 
seed  for  the  main  part  of  the  crop  in  this  way. 

206.  Insect  Enemies.    There  are  several  insects  which 
occasionally  cause  great  damage  to  the  wheat  crop.     Only 
the  more  important  will  be  discussed.    These  include  the 
Hessian  fly,  chinch  bug,  grasshopper,  and  armyworm. 

207.  Hessian  Fly.    The  Hessian  fly  resembles  the  mos- 
quito quite  closely.     It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  growing  wheat. 
When  the  maggots  hatch,  they  work  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
stem,  weakening  it  and  causing  the  head  to  fall  over  so  that 
it  is  missed  by  the  binder.     Fall  plowing,  rotation,  and  burn- 
ing straw,  stubble,  screenings,  and  litter  are  all  effective 
methods  of  checking  the  loss  from  this  insect. 

208.  Chinch  Bugs.  Chinch  bugs  destroy  a  great  deal  of 
wheat   by  sucking  the   sap   from   the   plants.     They  are 
blackish  in  color,  with  white  wing  covers,  and  are  about  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  long.     They  live  over  winter  in  the  mature 
form,  under  rubbish  and  leaves.     In  the  spring  the  females 
lay  their  eggs;  a  little  later,  the  young  appear  as  very  small, 
reddish  bugs.     The  hatching  period  extends  over  several 
weeks,  and  so  bugs  of  all  sizes  may  be  seen  at  one  time. 
There  are  no  effective  remedies  against  these  bugs  in  wheat, 
except  to  burn  or  otherwise  dispose  of  all  rubbish  in  the  fall, 
so  that  the  bugs  will  have  fewer  places  in  which  to  hibernate. 

209.  Grasshoppers,  when  abundant,  sometimes  do  great 
damage  to  wheat.     The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground  during 
midsummer,  and  hatch  the  following  spring.     The  young 


168  FIELD  CROPS 

hoppers  have  no  wings;  hence  they  do  not  travel  about  much. 
When  full  grown  they  acquire  wings  and  fly  readily.  The 
eggs  are  usually  laid  in  pastures,  meadows,  and  in  waste 
land.  Late  fall  plowing  and  rotation  of  crops  are  effective 
in  controlling  the  hoppers,  for  many  of  the  eggs  are  destroyed 
and  others  are  buried  so  deep  as  to  prevent  the  young  hop- 
pers from  getting  to  the  surface  when  hatched.  The  young 
hoppers  are  often  destroyed  in  large  numbers,  by  use  of  hop- 
perdozers,  or  by  poisoning  with  arsenite  of  soda. 

210.  Other  Insects.    Armyworms  sometimes  do  injury 
to  the  growing  crop,  while  grain  weevils  are  destructive  to 
the  stored  grain,  especially  in  the  South.    These  insects  and 
the  remedies  for  them  have  already  been  discussed  (Sees. 
131,  135). 

RELATION  TO  OTHER  CROPS 

211.  Place  in  the  Rotation.    Wheat  is  one  of  the  best 
crops  to  use  as  a  nurse  crop  for  grasses  and  clover,  because 
it  is  sown  early,  at  the  time  when  grass  seed  starts  best, 
and  because  it  does  not  shade  the  ground  so  much  as  oats 
or  barley.    On  this  account,  wheat  commonly  follows  corn 
and  precedes  a  hay  crop.    In  the  main  wheat-producing 
sections,  it  is  very  commonly  grown  year  after  year  on  the 
same  land,  without  fertilization.     Occasionally  such  land  is 
left  without  a  crop  for  one  year  and  "summer  fallowed;" 
that  is,  it  is  plowed  once  or  twice,  usually  about  midsummer. 
This  is  a  wasteful  practice,  and  is  usually  discontinued  as 
a  country  develops  and  some  system  of  crop  rotation  is 
introduced. 

A  very  simple  rotation  is:  first  year,  corn;  second  year, 
wheat;  third  year,  clover.  Such  a  rotation  is  adapted  to  light 
soils  or  to  building  up  run-down  soils,  This  is  especially 


USES  OF  WHEAT  169 

true  if  the  corn  and  grass  crops  are  fed  to  stock  and  the 
manure  returned  to  the  soil.  Another  common  rotation  is 
one  covering  five  years:  first  year,  wheat;  second  year,  hay; 
third  year,  pasture;  fourth  year,  corn;  fifth  year,  oats.  Such 
a  rotation  is  suitable  where  all  of  the  land  is  tillable,  where 
the  grass  crops  may  be  grown,  and  where  diversified  farming 
is  practiced.  In  the  Southwest,  where  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced in  getting  grass  started  and  where  alfalfa  is  the  main 
hay  crop,  the  following  rotation  is  often  followed :  first  year, 
com ;  second  year,  wheat ;  third  year,  oats.  To  add  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil,  cowpeas  or  soy  beans  are  seeded  as  soon 
as  the  grain  crops  are  removed,  and  plowed  under  later  in 
the  fall.  In  the  South,  a  common  rotation  is :  first  year,  corn 
and  cowpeas;  second  year,  wheat  and  cowpeas;  third  year, 
cotton.  In  the  tobacco  sections  of  the  South,  a  rotation 
often  followed  is:  first  year,  tobacco;  second  year,  wheat; 
third  year,  clover. 

212.  Wheat  as  a  Nurse  Crop.    In  sowing  grass  seed  with 
wheat,  it  is  quite  often  mixed  with  the  seed  grain  and  sown, 
and  in  other  cases  it  is  sown  with  a  grass-seed  attachment  on 
the  drill  or  seeder.    Timothy  seed  may  be  sown  with  winter 
wheat  in  the  fall  when  the  wheat  is  seeded,  but  as  a  rule  it  is 
much  safer  to  sow  clover  seed  in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall. 
Grass  seed  may  be  seeded  in  the  spring  on  winter  wheat 
land,  and  the  land  harrowed  to  cover  it,  without  detriment 
to  the  crop. 

USES  OF  WHEAT 

213.  As  Human  Food.    The  chief  use  of  wheat  the  world 
over  is  for  flour  to  be  used  as  human  food.    There  are 
numerous  grades  of  flour,   but  only  four  general  kinds; 
namely,  white  flour,  graham  flour,  whole-wheat  flour,  and 


170 


FIELD  CROPS 


macaroni  flour.  White  flour  is  by  far  the  most  generally 
used.  Graham  flour  differs  from  whole-wheaj,  flour  only  in 
that  it  is  the  whole  wheat  ground  and  unbolted,  while  the 
coarser  part  of  the  bran  is  removed  from  the  whole-wheat 
flour.  Contrary  to  general  belief,  white  flour  makes  more 
digestible  bread  than  either  the  graham  or  whole-wheat  flour. 
Durum  or  macaroni  wheat  is  manufactured  into  flour  only  to 
a  very  limited  extent.  Bread  from  it  is  very  palatable,  but 
not  quite  so  light  or  white  as  from  ordinary  white  flour. 
Shredded  whole  wheat  and  cream-of-wheat  are  breakfast 
foods  made  from  wheat.  Whole  wheat  is  sometimes  cooked 
thoroughly  and  eaten  as  a  breakfast  food. 

214.  As  Feed  for  Live  Stock.  Wheat  is  usually  too 
valuable  to  feed  to  stock.  However,  some  of  the  poorer 
grades  and  wheat  screenings  are  often  fed,  and  occasionally 
the  prices  of  live  stock  and  of  wheat  are  such  that  good 
wheat  may  be  fed  profitably.  The  by-products  in  the 
manufacture  of  flour, — namely,  bran,  shorts,  middlings, 
and  often  the  poorer  grades  of  flour  commonly  called  red- 
dog,— are  very  common  and  valuable  feeds  for  live  stock. 
The  following  table  shows  the  general  composition  of  some 
of  these  by-products  as  compared  with  corn : 

Table  X.  Digestible  nutrients  in  pounds  to  the  hundred  pounds  of 
dry  matter  of  wheat  and  the  by-products  from  flour  mills,  compared 
with  corn. 


Feed 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Corn 

Pounds 

78 

Pounds 
66  8 

Pounds 

4  3 

Wheat  . 

88 

67  5 

1  5 

Bran  

11.9 

420 

2  5 

Shorts  

13.0 

45  7 

4  5 

Middlings 

169 

53  6 

4  1 

Red-dog  flour 

162 

570 

3  4 

PRODUCING  NEW  VARIETIES  171 

It  will  be  observed  that  wheat  and  all  the  mill  by-products 
are  richer  in  protein  than  corn,  while  corn  is  richer  in  carbo- 
hydrates than  any  of  the  wheat  products. 

METHODS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 

215.  Wheat  Will  Not  Mix.     Wheat,  being  close-fertilized 
is  one  of  the  comparatively  easy  crops  to  improve,  because 
selected  plants  do  not  become  mixed  with  undesirable  ones, 
as  is  the  case  with  corn.     It  is  probable  that  occasionally 
some  cross-fertilization  occurs,  but  it  is  so  seldom  as  to  be 
unimportant.     If  several  varieties  of  wheat  are  grown  in 
one  plat,  any  one  plant  will  produce  pure  seed  regardless  of 
the  plants  surrounding  it.     This  fact  enables  one  to  use 
large  numbers  of  individual  plants  in  improvement  work. 

216.  Breeding  by  Selection.    The  most  common  method 
of  improving  wheat  is  by  selection.     A  large  number  of 
wheat  plants  grown  under  perfectly  uniform  conditions  will 
vary  greatly  in  yield  and  in  other  respects.    Advantage 
should  be  taken  of  this  fact  in  breeding  by  eliminating  all 
of  the  poorer  plants,  and  reproducing  only  those  capable  of 
giving  the  best  returns.     A  very  common  method  is  to  grow 
on  uniform  land  from  one  thousand  to  several  thousand 
plants  of  the  variety  of  wheat  to  be  improved.     At  harvest 
time,  twenty-five  or  fifty  of  the  highest-yielding  plants  are 
saved,  and  the  seed  from  each  plant  kept  in  a  separate 
package.     With  the  seed  from  each  of  these  selected  plants, 
separate  plats  are  planted  to  test  the  ability  of  the  selected 
plants  to  continue  to  give  large  yields.    This  comparative 
test  is  continued  for  at  least  three  years;  the  plant  giving  the 
highest  average  yield  for  three  years  in  the  small  plat  is 
increased  as  rapidly  as  possible,  to  furnish  seed  for  the 
main  crop. 


172  FIELD  CROPS 

217.  Crossing.    Since  wheat  plants  are  close-fertilized, 
crossing  artificially  is  often  practiced.    To   do  this,   the 
unopened  anthers  are  removed  from  the  florets  and  the  head 
is  covered  for  a  couple  of  days  until  the  stigmas  are  ready 
to  be  fertilized.     Ripe  pollen  is  then  taken  from  another  head 
and  dusted  on  the  stigmas  of  the  head  from  which  the  anthers 
are  removed.    The  head  is  again  covered  to  prevent  any 
other  pollen  from  reaching  it.    Because  of  the  fact  that 
wheat  is  not  naturally  cross-pollinated,  crossing  in  this  way 
causes  a  great  variation  in  the  resulting  plants.    The  crossing 
of  two  varieties  of  wheat  may  bring  forth  plants  similar  to 
either  parent  and  many  variations  from  either  of  the  original 
types,  as  for  example,  bearded  wheats  may  result  from  a 
cross  between  beardless  varieties.    The  object  of  crossing 
is  sometimes  to  unite  desirable  characters  in  two  varieties, 
and  sometimes  to  cause  a  greater  variation  than  is  common, 
with  a  view  to  having  greater  opportunity  for  selection.    It 
takes  several  generations  to  fix  the  character  of  a  wheat  plant 
produced  by  crossing.    A  few  desirable  varieties  of  wheat 
have  been  produced  in  this  way,  but  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber are  the  result  of  straight  selection. 

218.  Judging  Wheat.    For  the  purpose  of  judging  seed 
wheat,  the  agricultural  colleges  have  devised  score  cards 
giving  varying  values  to  the  important  points  desired  in  it. 
While   these    colleges   do  not   all   agree   as   to   the   rela- 
tive importance  of  each  point,  they  do  agree  quite  uniformly 
on  the  important  points.    Any  of  these  cards  will  serve  the 
purpose  of  calling  attention  to  the  important  points  that 
must  be  considered  in  judging.     The  following  score  card 
used  by  the  Minnesota  College  of  Agriculture  is  submitted 
as  a  fair  sample. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


173 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  SEED  WHEAT 


SALIENT   POINTS 

INTRINSIC  POINTS 

Standard 
Score 

YIELD 

25 

30  Points 

Uniformity               

5 

VARIETY 

Color  

3 

CHARACTERS 

Purity                          

10 

15  Points 

2 

5 

VITALITY 

Plumpness  

15 

30  Points 

3 

Odor  

7 

Weed  Seed 

10 

MARKET 

Dirt  and  Dust  

3 

CONDITION 

Injured  kernels        

2 

25  Points 

Smut    etc 

5 

Condition  of  bran  

5 

100  Points 

Total  

100 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Secure  samples  of  as  many  kinds  of  wheat  as  possible,  and  learn 
to  identify  them.     Note  differences  in  weight,  size  and  shape  of  kernel, 
hardness  of  kernel,  and  color. 

2.  Secure  samples  of  wheat  from  several  farms;  compare  weight, 
color,  amount  of  weed  seeds,  amount  of  dirt,  purity  of  sample   (that  is, 
is  it  one  pure  variety  or  a  mixture?),  size  and  variation  of  kernels, 
presence  or  absence  of  smut. 

3.  Secure  an  average  sample  of  wheat;  weigh  out  carefully  one  or 
two  ounces;  count  the  kernels,  then  determine  the  number  in  one  pound, 
in  one  bushel.     Find  how  many  kernels  per  square  foot  there  would  be 
if  IK  bushels  were  sown  evenly  on  an  acre  of  land.    If  possible,  count 
the  number  of  plants  found  growing  on  one  square  foot  in  a  good  field 
of  wheat.    How  do  you  account  for  the  difference? 

4.  Visit  several  fields  of  grain  just  as  they  are  heading  out.     Find 
a  head  of  wheat  that  is  smutted;  pull  up  the  plant  on  which  the  smutted 
head  is  growing,  and  carefully  examine  all  of  the  heads  on  the  plant,  even 
if  you  must  split  the  stem  open  to  find  some  of  the  heads  that  have  not 
yet  appeared.     Examine  several  smutted  plants  in  this  way.     Are  all 
of  the  heads  of  a  plant  usually  smutted,  or  are  only  part  of  them? 
Does  not  this  indicate  that  the  infection  came  from  the  seed  instead  of 
spreading  in  the  field? 


174  FIELD  CROPS 

5.  Secure  two  small  samples  of  wheat.     Sprinkle  one  with  water, 
just  as  you  would  do  if  treating  for  stinking  smut  as  suggested  in  this 
chapter.     After  treating  the  sample,  allow  it  to  stand  for  from  ten  to 
fifteen  hours.    Then  plant  several  kernels  from  both  the  treated  and 
untreated  samples  in  a  box  of  sand.    Slightly  moisten  the  sand  as  you 
ordinarily  would  if  you  wished  the  wheat  to  germinate;  keep  the  box  in 
a  suitable  place  for  wheat  to  germinate.     Note  the  difference  in  germi- 
nation between  the  treated  and  untreated  seed. 

6.  Get  a  sample  of  wheat  affected  with  stinking  smut.     Learn 
to  quickly  identify  the  smut  balls.     Does  the  sample  show  indications 
of  being  smutted  either  by  looks  or  by  smell? 

7.  Go  into  a  field  at  harvest  time  or  early  in  the  fall;  dig  up  some 
wheat  stubble,  also  some  stubble  from  a  timothy  and  clover  meadow. 
Compare  the  amount  and  character  of  the  roots  of  the  three  kinds  of 
plants.     Which  crop  will  leave  the  most  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil? 

8.  Some  time  between  January  1st  and  planting  time,    secure 
samples  of  wheat  from  a  number  of  farms.     Plant  100  kernels  from  each 
sample  in  plate  germinators.     Compare  the  strength  and  percentage 
of  germination. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  660-670. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  253-268. 
Dondlinger's  The  Book  of  Wheat. 
Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  26-137. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 

139.  Emmer:    A  Grain  for  Semiarid  Regions. 

210.  Varieties,  Quality  and  Culture  of  Wheat. 

219.  Lessons  From  the  Grain  Rust  Epidemic  of  1904. 

237.  Running  Out  of  Seed  Wheat. 

250.  The  Prevention  of  Stinking  Smut  in  Wheat  and  Loose  Smut 
in  Oats. 

262.  Glutinous  and  Starchy  Wheats. 

273.  Pasturing  Wheat. 

320.  Quality  in  Wheat. 

388.  Rolling  vs.  Harrowing  Winter  Wheat. 

389.  Bread  and  Bread  Making. 
466.  Winter  Emmer. 


CHAPTER  V 

OATS 

HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION 

219.  Origin  and  History.    The  oat  belongs  to  the  genus 
Avena,  one  of  the  numerous  subdivisions  of  the  great  family 
of  grasses,  the  Grarnineae.    As  nearly  as  can  be  determined, 
this  plant  is  a  native  of  central  or  western  Asia  and  eastern 
Europe,  probably  within  what  is  now  the  Russian  Empire. 
No  mention  is  made  of  oats  in  the  earlier  writings  which  have 
been  preserved,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  this  grain  was 
cultivated  until  a  much  later  period  than  wheat  and  barley, 
though  it  was  known  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.    It 
is  not  strange  that  the  ancient  peoples,  with  their  crude 
methods  of  grinding  and  preparing  grains  for  use  as  food,  first 
cultivated  wheat,  which  thrashes  free  from  the  hull,  and  bar- 
ley, with  a  hull  much  thinner  than  that  of  oats.     Oats  prob- 
ably were  not  grown  till  the  need  for  feed  grain  for  domestic 
animals  became  a  pressing  one,  and  were  then  used  for  human 
food  only  in  times  of  failure  of  other  grain  crops.    Their 
hardiness  and  quick  maturity  brought  them  into  favor  in 
some  of  the  northern  countries,  where  they  have  long  been 
commonly  used  as  food  for  man  as  well  as  for  live  stock.    The 
early  colonists  introduced  oats  into  America,  and  their  culti- 
vation soon   became   common,   particularly  in  the   more 
northerly  sections. 

220.  Relationships.    Practically  all  the  cultivated  varie- 
ties of  oats  have  been  developed  from  the  form  known  as 
Avena  saliva,  though  a  few,  such  as   the   Red   Rustproof 
of  the  Southern  states,  have  perhaps  been  derived  from 


176  FIELD  CROP 8 

Avena  sterilis  or  some  other  wild  form  native  to  southern 
Europe  or  northern  Africa.  Several  species  of  Avena  are 
now  found  wild  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  one,  the 
common  wild  oat,  Avena  fatua,  is  a  serious  weed  pest  in 
grain  fields  in  the  northern  United  States  and  in  Canada. 
None  of  the  closely  related  genera  or  species  is  generally 
cultivated,  though  velvet  grass  (Holcus)  and  tall  oat  grass 
(Arrhenatherum)  are  occasionally  sown  with  other  grasses 
for  meadow  and  pasture  purposes. 

221.  Botanical  Characters.  The  oat  is  an  annual  plant 
with  hollow,  jointed  stems  and  fibrous  roots.  The  culms 
are  from  2  to  5  feet  in  height,  the  average  being  about  3J/2 
feet.  The  number  of  culms  produced  from  a  single  seed  is 
usually  from  three  to  seven,  though  the  height  of  the  plant 
and  the  number  of  culms  depend  very  largely  on  the  richness 
of  the  soil,  the  thickness  of  planting,  and  the  season.  The 
leaves  are  numerous,  lanceolate,  6  to  12  inches  long  and  J^ 
to  1^2  inches  wide.  The  base  of  the  leaf,  or  sheath,  clasps 
the  culm  for  practically  the  entire  length  of  the  internode. 

The  flowers  are  borne  in  panicles,  which  are  more  or 
less  spreading  according  to  the  variety.  The  panicle  con- 
sists of  a  central  stem,  or  rachis,  with  from  three  to  five 
whorls  of  several  small  branches  each  arranged  at  intervals 
along  it.  It  is  usually  from  9  to  12  inches  long,  and  bears 
from  forty  to  seventy-five  spikelets.  Each  spikelet  consists 
of  two  or  more  flowers,  of  which  usually  but  two  are  fertile. 
In  some  varieties,  only  one  grain  reaches  full  size,  though 
usually  two  grains  develop,  the  second  being  smaller  than  the 
first.  Occasionally  the  third  flower  in  the  spikelet  produces 
a  grain,  but  this  is  usually  too  small  to  be  of  value.  The 
flowers  are  enclosed  in  two  thin  outer  glumes  (the  chaff), 
while  the  reproductive  organs  of  each  flower  are  enclosed  in 
the  flowering  glume  and  palea,  which  later  form  the  hull. 


BOTANICAL  CHARACTERS  177 

The  organs  of  reproduction  consist  of  three  stamens  with 
thread-like  filaments,  tipped  with  large  anthers,  and  a  pistil 
with  two  feathery  stigmas.  The  flowers  open  for  only  a 
few  hours;  fertilization  generally  takes  place  before  they 
open.  The  .oat  is  normally  close-fertilized,  though  cross- 
fertilization  may  possibly  o'ccur. 


Fig.  58.     Oat  spikelets  in  blossom. 

The  seed  varies  in  size,  color,  and  shape  according  to  the 
variety,  but  is  usually  two  or  three  times  as  long  as  broad, 
tapering  from  a  little  above  the  base  to  the  tip,  and  is  fur- 
rowed on  the  inner  side.  The  flowering  glume  is  often  pro- 
vided with  a  short,  usually  twisted  awn,  which  is  attached 
to  the  back  of  the  glume.  This  may  fall  off  when  the  grain 
ripens  or  be  broken  off  in  thrashing,  or  it  may  adhere  to  the 


178  FIELD  CROPS 

thrashed  grain.  In  the  form  known  as  hull-less  oats,  rarely 
grown  in  this  country  except  as  a  curiosity,  the  grain  sepa- 
rates readily  from  the  flowering  glume,  and  thrashes  out 
clean  like  wheat. 

The  weight  of  the  grain  in  ordinary  oats  is  one-third  to 
one-half  the  weight  of  the  entire  crop,  and  about  two-thirds 
of  the  weight  of  the  grain  is  kernel  and  one-third  hull.  Some 
samples  run  as  high  as  75  per  cent  of  kernel,  while  others  do 
not  exceed  60  per  cent. 

222.  Classification  of  Varieties.  The  varieties  of  hulled 
or  common  oats  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  branches  on  the  rachis,  (the  central 
stem  of  the  panicle) .  If  these  are  all  of  about  the  same  length 
and  turned  to  one  side,  the  variety  belongs  to  the  class  of 
side,  or  " horse-mane,"  oats;  if  the  branches  are  of  different 
lengths  and  stand  out  at  different  angles  from  the  rachis, 
they  are  of  the  spreading,  or  "sprangled,"  type.  The  latter 
is  much  more  common,  whereas  side  oats  include  only  a  few 
varieties,  grown  generally  in  the  more  northerly  sections. 
As  with  wheat,  there  are  winter  and  spring  oats,  according 
to  their  adaptability  to  fall  seeding.  Winter  oats  are  much 
less  hardy  than  winter  wheat,  and  are  seldom  grown  in  this 
country  except  in  the  Southern  and  Pacific  states.  Oats 
may  be  divided  according  to  the  color  of  the  hull  into  white, 
yellow,  black  (gray  or  grayish-black)  and  red  (reddish- 
brown)  varieties.  The  oats  commonly  grown  in  the  North 
are  white,  though  black  and  yellow  varieties  are  sometimes 
sown;  those  grown  in  the  South  are  red  or  gray  in  color. 
Another  division  may  be  based  on  the  time  of  ripening,  as 
early,  medium,  and  late;  and  still  others  on  the  size  and  the 
shape  of  the  grain.  Early  oats  ripen  in  90  to  100  days  from 
sowing,  and  late -oats  in  from  115  to  130  days. 


VARIETIES  OF  OATS 


179 


223.  Leading  Varieties.  No  complete  classification  of 
the  varieties  of  oats  grown  in  the  United  States  has  ever 
been  made ;  the  differences  in  time  of  ripening,  shape  of  grain, 


Fig.  59.     The  two  types  of  panicles  in  oats;  spreading, 
at  the  left;  side,  or  "horse-mane,"  at  the  right. 

and  other  characteristics  are  so  slight  as  to  make  such  a  task 
extremely  difficult.  New  varieties  are  introduced  each 
year  by  enterprising  seedsmen,  and  old  ones  are  sent  out 
under  new  names,  thus  adding  to  the  confusion.  A  few  of 


180 


FIELD  CROPS 


the  more  prominent  varieties  of  white  oats  grown  in  the 
Northern  states  are  Big  Four,  Silvermine,  Clydesdale,  Swed- 
ish Select,  and  American  Banner.  White  Russian  and  Tar- 
tarian are  the  most  common  varieties  of  the  side-oat  type. 
Farther  south,  particularly  through  Nebraska,  Iowa,  and 
Illinois,  a  type  of  small  early  yellow  oats  from  southern 
Russia,  represented  by  the  Sixty  Day  and  Kherson  varieties. 


Fig.  60.  Four  varieties  of  oats  differing  in  size,  shape,  and  color.  On 
the  left,  an  early  yellow  oat  with  small,  slender  grains.  Sixty  Day;  next,  a  plump, 
large-grained,  reddish-brown  variety,  Red  Rustproof;  then  a  small,  black  oat, 
North  Finnish  Black;  on  the  right,  a  medium  late,  large,  white  variety,  Swedish 
Select. 

is  coming  rapidly  into  favor,  though  Silvermine  and  some  of 
the  later  white  oats  are  popular  in  some  sections  in  these 
states  as  well  as  in  those  farther  east  and  north.  In  the  South 
the  most  common  varieties  are  Red  Rustproof  and  Winter 
Turf.  The  former  may  be  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the 
spring,  while  the  latter  is  sown  only  in  the  fall. 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  OATS  181 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CROP 

224.  World  Production.    Oats  grow  best  in  a  cool,  rather 
moist  climate,  and  are  most  largely  produced  in  the  North 
Temperate  zone.    Among  the  leading  countries  in  the  pro- 
duction of  this  crop  are  the  United  States,  European  Russia, 
Germany,  France,  Canada,  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  United 
Kingdom.    Such  northern  countries  as  Sweden  and  Norway 
also  produce  large  quantities  of  oats,  but  they  are  not  im- 
portant factors  in  the  world  production  because  of  their  com- 
paratively small  area.    According  to  the  figures  of  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  world  production  of  oats  is  about  four  billion  bushels 
annually,  or  about  the  same  as  that  of  corn  or  wheat.    On 
account  of  the  much  greater  weight  of  a  bushel  of  either  of 
the  other  grains,  the  total  weight  of  those  crops  is  con- 
siderably more  than  that  of  oats,  and  the  value  is  also  much 
greater. 

In  the  five  years  from  1906  to  1910,  the  average  annual 
production  of  oats  in  the  United  States  was  932,000,000 
bushels,  or  a  little  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  world  produc- 
tion. European  Russia  averaged  865,000,000  bushels  in 
the  same  period;  Germany,  583,000,000  bushels;  France, 
299,000,000  bushels;  and  Canada,  295,000,000  bushels. 

225.  Production  in  the  United  States.    In  the  United 
States,  oats  rank  second  to  corn  in  the  number  of  bushels 
of  grain  produced,  but  are  exceeded  in  total  weight  by  wheat 
as  well  as  by  corn.     In  value,  they  rank  fifth  among  our 
field  crops,   falling  below  corn,   cotton,   hay,  and  wheat. 
The  average  annual  area  devoted  to  the  production  of  oats 
in  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911 
was  31,779,000  acres;  the  mean  annual  yield,  29.35  bushels 
to  the  acre;  average  total  production,  926,202,000  bushels; 


182 


FIELD  CROPS 


and  average  farm  value  on  December  1st,  $337,840,000.    The 
ten  leading  states  in  production  are  shown  in  Table  XI. 

Table  XL  Average  annual  acreage,  production,  and  farm  value 
and  mean  acre  yield  of  oats  in  the  ten  states  of  largest  production 
for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911. 


Area 

Mean  yield 
per  acre 

Production 

Farm  value. 
Dec.  1. 

Iowa  

Acres 

4,305,000 

Bushels 

29.5 

Bushels 

126,964,000 

Dollars 

39,208,000 

Illinois 

3  911  000 

31  7 

124  211  000 

42  379  000 

Wisconsin 

2  463  000 

330 

78,189,000 

27,435,000 

Minnesota 

2,489,000 

31.0 

75,647,000 

24,168,000 

Nebraska  

2,250,000 

26.2 

57,678,000 

17,439,000 

Ohio  

1,420,000 

33.1 

46,634,000 

17,620,000 

Indiana  

1,546,000 

29.3 

44,727,000 

15,507,000 

New  York  

1,278,000 

32.6 

41,700,000 

18,361,000 

Michigan  

1,275,000 

31.3 

39,248,000 

15,072,000 

North  Dakota.. 

1,305,000 

28.6  , 

36,669,000 

11,885,000 

As  shown  by  the  table  and  by  the  accompanying  diagram, 
the  leading  states  in  the  production  of  oats  are  Iowa,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Nebraska.  These  five  states 
produce  more  than  half  of  the  entire  oat  crop  of  the  country, 
while  the  first  four,  comprising  the  central  portion  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  Valley,  produce  more  than  400,000,000 
bushels,  or  about  one-tenth  of  the  entire  production  of  the 
world.  The  percentage  of  the  total  crop  of  the  United  States 
which  is  produced  by  each  of  the  important  states  is  shown 
graphically  in  Fig.  61. 

More  than  10  per  cent  of  the  total  land  area  of  Iowa  and 
Illinois  is  annually  devoted  to  the  production  of  oats,  while 
from  4  to  7  per  cent  of  the  total  areas  of  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, Nebraska,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York  are 
utilized  for  this  purpose.  A  more  reliable  basis  for  comparing 
the  relative  importance  of  the  oat  crop  in  the  various  states 
is  that  shown  in  Fig.  62,  in  which  the  percentages  of  the  total 


ACRE  YIELD  OF  OATS  183 

improved  farm  area  annually  planted  to  oats  in  the  ten  lead- 
ing states  are  shown.  These  percentages  are  based  on  the 
annual  acreages  as  shown  in  Table  XI,  and  on  averages  of 
the  acreage  of  improved  farm  land  as  shown  by  the  Census 
of  1900  and  that  of  1910.  The  diagram  shows  that  oats  are 
relatively  more  important  in  Wisconsin  than  in  any  other 
state,  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  improved  farm  land  being 
planted  to  this  crop.  The  oat  crop  is  sown  on  about  one- 
seventh  of  the  improved  farm  land  of  Iowa  and  Illinois, 
and  on  one-tenth  or  less  of  that  of  the  other  seven  states. 


IOWA  I^HHHMHHHHBMBHMHB 

ILL.     i^*m*m*mm^am^m—mm*mm*m—*^*^^m  13.41% 

WIS.      MMIMMil^MIM^HMHm 


Fig.  61.     The  percentage  of  the  total  oat  crop  of  the  United  States  produced 
in  the  states  of  largest  production,  1902-1911. 

About  one-fourteenth  (7.13  per  cent)  of  the  entire  acreage 
of  improved  farm  land  in  the  United  States  is  annually 
devoted  to  oats. 

226.  Acre  Yield.  The  states  which  rank  highest  in  acre 
yield  are  those  in  which  the  acreage  is  comparatively  small, 
both  because  large  areas  still  remain  to  be  developed  within 
their  borders,  and  because  oats  are  grown  almost  entirely 
on  irrigated  land,  which  comprises  only  a  small  proportion 
of  the  total  acreage.  The  combination  of  favorable  climatic 
conditions,  including  abundant  moisture  supplied  at  the 


184  FIELD  CROPS 

right  time  in  their  development,  makes  oats  a  very  productive 
crop  in  these  states.  The  average  yield  to  the  acre  for  the 
ten  year  period  (1902-11)  in  Washington  was  47.6  bushels; 
Montana,  43  bushels;  Idaho,  41.7  bushels;  and  Utah,  41.5 
bushels.  In  comparison  with  these  figures,  the  average  yield 
for  the  entire  United  States  was  29.35  bushels  to  the 
acre,  while  that  of  the  five  states  of  largest  total  production 
ranged  from  26.2  to  33  bushels.  Naturally,  much  higher 
yields  than  any  of  these  averages  indicate  are  obtained  in  all 
of  the  states;  returns  of  from  150  to  200  bushels  to  the  acre 
have  been  recorded  in  some  of  the  North  Pacific  and  Rocky 


IOWA 


ILL.     mmmme^m*Hmmmam^m*mmmm^m  14.04% 
wis.     mmmmammmmmmmm*^*f^**mmmm^fm*mmm^m 

MINN,  •••^•••••••^••••••••••••i  13.  oa  % 

NEB  ft.  immmmmammmmtmHmtfmmmm  jo.52.% 
OHIO    ••••••^•••••i  7.38% 

IND.     Wm^m^f^^^^mmmmm  9.2/% 
N.Y.       M^^HHHBBH^HH  8.4O% 

MICH.  w*—m^—mm—^  /o.3e% 


7.13%, 


Fig.  62.     The  percentage  of  improved  farm  land  in  oats  in  each  of  the  ten 
states  of  largest  production,  and  in  the  United  States,  1902-1911. 

Mountain  states,  while  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  crops 
of  from  50  to  75  bushels  to  the  acre  are  obtained  in  favorable 
years.  The  average,  however,  is  kept  down  by  unfavorable 
seasons,  and  by  the  crops  grown  on  poor  soil  and  on  poorly 
prepared  land. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  CROP 

227.  The  Best  Soils  for  Oats.  The  best  soils  for  oats 
are  those  which  warm  up  early  in  the  spring,  thus  aiding 
early  seeding  and  germination,  and  helping  to  mature  the 
crop  before  hot  weather.  As  oats  draw  more  heavily  on  the 
soil  moisture  than  most  of  the  other  grain  crops,  a  good  oat 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  OAT 8  185 

soil  is  also  one  that  holds  moisture  well.  This  combination 
is  found  in  the  loams  and  clay  loams;  heavy  clays  are  too 
cold,  while  light  sandy  soils  are  too  likely  to  dry  out  when  the 
crop  is  in  the  greatest  need  of  moisture.  A  fairly  good  crop 
of  oats  can  be  produced  on  almost  any  reasonably  fertile 
land,  however,  if  other  conditions  are  right.  Some  of  the 
heaviest  yields  are  obtained  on  the  muck  soils  of  Washing- 
ton. 

The  oat  plant  is  a  comparatively  shallow  feeder,  most  of 
its  roots  being  found  in  the  first  two  feet  of  soil.  For  this 
reason,  the  best  crops  are  produced  on  fairly  fertile  soil, 
though  on  rich  land  there  is  always  a  tendency  toward  rank 
growth  of  straw,  particularly  if  the  moisture  supply  is  abun- 
dant. This  rank  growth  and  abundant  moisture  invite 
such  diseases  as  rust  and  mildew,  and  the  weak,  soft  stems 
are  unable  to  suppoit  the  weight  of  the  crop,  hence  lodging 
follows.  If  lodging  takes  place  early  in  the  season,  the  grain 
will  be  light  and  shriveled.  Lodging  when  the  grain  is 
nearly  ripe  usually  does  little  damage  to  the  crop,  though 
the  cost  of  harvesting  may  be  greatly  increased.  Lodging 
at  this  time  is  more  likely  to  be  due  to  the  blowing  over  of 
the  entire  plant  during  a  heavy  rain  storm  than  to  weakness 
of  the  straw.  Attempts  are  being  made  to  produce  oats 
which  are  resistant  to  the  tendency  to  lodge,  but  the  most 
effective  means  of  preventing  lodging  are  thorough  drainage 
and  the  use  of  land  that  has  not  been  freshly  manured. 

228.  Manures  and  Fertilizers.  It  has  just  been  stated 
that  the  land  should  not  be  too  rich  for  oats.  It  is  best  to 
apply  barnyard  manure  to  some  other  crop  in  the  rotation, 
such  as  corn  or  grass,  allowing  the  oats  to  get  some  of  the 
benefit  of  the  residual  effect  of  the  manure.  When  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  necessary,  those  containing  phosphorus 
and  potassium  as  the  principal  elements  should  be  used, 


186  FIELD  CROPS 

except  on  soils  which  are  decidedly  lacking  in  nitrogen.  On 
such  soils,  plowing  under  a  leguminous  crop  for  green  manure 
before  sowing  the  oats  is  frequently  of  much  benefit.  This 
is  most  necessary  and  can  be  done  to  best  advantage  in  the 
South,  where  oats  are  sown  in  the  fall.  On  soils  which  are 
lacking  in  potassium,  the  use  of  fertilizers  containing  that 
mineral  usually  greatly  increases  the  yield,  and  at  the  same 
time  tends  toward  the  production  of  stiffer  straw.  In 
general,  where  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  necessary, 
the  largest  yields  are  obtained  from  the  application  of  small 
quantities  of  a  mixture  of  all  three  of  the  important  fertiliz- 
ing elements,  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus. 

229.  Preparing  the  Land.  As  early  seeding  is  desirable 
in  order  to  have  the  crop  mature  before  hot  weather,  the 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed  should  begin  just  as  soon  as 
the  land  is  in  condition  to  work  in  the  spring.  A  mellow, 
rather  loose  surface  soil  with  a  firm  subsoil  is  best  for  oats. 
On  fields  where  a  cultivated  crop  was  grown  the  previous 
season,  this  is  most  quickly  and  easily  obtained  by  the  use 
of  the  disk  and  the  smoothing  harrows.  If  the  soil  is  natu- 
rally rather  loose  or  if  the  field  had  been  plowed  for  the  pre- 
ceding crop,  such  as  corn  or  potato  land,  just  as  good  yields 
are  often  obtained  by  disking  without  plowing  as  from  any 
other  method  of  preparation.  Generally,  where  it  is  possible 
to  do  the  work,  fall  plowing  followed  by  spring  disking  and 
harrowing  will  produce  the  largest  yields  most  economically, 
because  soils  so  prepared  are  usually  in  the  best  shape  to 
store  up  moisture  for  the  use  of  the  crop.  Spring  plowing 
frequently  delays  seeding,  and  unless  the  soil  is  thoroughly 
packed  to  firm  the  lower  layers,  it  is  likely  to  be  too  loose  for 
the  best  results. 

Where  oats  follow  some  other  small  grain,  the  land  is 
quite  generally  plowed;  but  in  the  corn  belt,  where  oats  are 


PREPARING  THE  LAND  FOR  OATS 


187 


most  largely  grown,  they  are  usually  sown  on  the  corn  land 
without  plowing.  The  common  practice  is  to  disk  the  ground 
thoroughly  in  the  spring,  making  a  mellow  seed  bed  to  a^ 
depth  of  3  or  4  inches,  fining  and  smoothing  the  surface  with 
the  spike-tooth  harrow.  In  this  way,  very  good  results 
may  be  expected  at  reasonable  cost.  In  some  cases,  oats 
are  sown  broadcast  on  land  that  has  been  neither  disked  nor 
plowed,  the  only  preparation  given  being  the  disking  or 


Fig.  63.     A  sample  of  oats  as  it  came  from  the  thrashing  machine;  weight,  30 
pounds  to  the  bushel. 

cultivating  necessary  to  cover  the  seed.  This  is  a  cheap 
but  a  very  slovenly  method  of  farming,  which,  while  it  may 
occasionally  produce  as  good  returns  as  the  more  thorough 
preparation,  is  quite  likely  to  result  in  reduced  yields  because 
it  does  not  put  the  soil  in  proper  condition  for  the  germination 
of  the  seed  or  the  retention  of  moisture  for  the  growth  of  the 
crop. 


188 


FIELD  CROPS 


230.  Preparing  the  Seed  for  Planting.  It  is  even  more 
important  to  grade  seed  oats  before  sowing  than  seed  wheat, 
for  in  most  years  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  weak, 
shrunken  kernels  in  oats  than  in  wheat.  These  kernels  are 
slow  in  germinating,  or  do  not  grow  at  all;  the  plants  pro- 
duced from  them  are  small  and  weak,  and  never  yield  so  well 
as  those  from  large,  plump  kernels.  Oats  very  frequently 
contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  weed  seeds,  chaff,  and 


Fig.  64.     Some  of  the  largest  and  heaviest  grains  out  of  the  same  lot  as  the 
sample  shown   in  Fig.  63.     Weight,  39    pounds  to  the  bushel. 

dirt,  all  of  which  tend  to  reduce  the  stand  by  lessening  the 
quantity  of  good  seed  which  is  sown.  Thorough  cleaning 
of  the  seed  with  the  fanning  mill  or  by  some  other  means  is 
advisable,  and  usually  pays  well  for  the  necessary  time  and 
labor.  Treating  the  seed  with  a  solution  of  formaldehyde 
before  sowing  will  destroy  oat  smut  (Sec.  244).  Details  of 
the  treatment  have  already  been  given  (Sec.  205). 


SOWING  OATS 


189 


231.  Sowing  the  Seed.  Oats  should  be  sown  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  put  in  condition,  for  usually 
the  plants  are  not  seriously  injured  by  late  frosts,  and  best 
results  are  obtained  when  the  crop  makes  as  much  growth 
as  possible  before  hot  weather.  All  tests  which  have  been 
made  by  the  experiment  stations  favor  early  seeding.  The 
exact  date  of  seeding  naturally  depends  on  the  locality  and 
the  season.  Seeding  may  be  entirely  finished  during  an 


Fig.  65.     Sowing  oats  with  a  broadcast  seeder  on  corn  land  without  previous 
preparation.  A  careless  method  of  farming. 

early  spring  at  an  earlier  date  than  it  can  be  begun  in  a  back- 
ward one.  In  general,  the  best  date  from  Kansas  eastward 
is  during  the  latter  half  of  March.  In  Nebraska,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  and  other  states  in  the  same  latitude,  the  first  half  of 
April  is  usually  the  seeding  season,  though  in  exceptional 
years  seeding  may  be  finished  before  April  1,  or  may  be 
delayed  until  almost  May  1.  In  the  Dakotas,  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  and  other  states  along  the  northern  border,  the 
usual  seeding  season  is  the  latter  half  of  April,  though  it 


190  FIELD  CROPS 

may  extend  well  into  May  or  be  finished  by  April  20. 
Fall-sown  oats  are  sown  in  September  in  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  and  Arkansas,  and  in  October  in  the  states 
farther  south. 

The  rate  of  seeding  varies  greatly  in  different  sections 
as  well  as  on  different  soils  and  with  different  varieties. 
The  usual  rate  is  from  2  to  3  bushels  to  the  acre,  though  in 
some  sections  it  is  considerably  greater, -while  in  the  "dry 
farming"  region  of  the  West,  from  1  to  lJ/£  bushels  is  the 
usual  rate.  In  England  and  Scotland,  6  or  7  bushels  to  the 
acre  are  sometimes  sown;  such  heavy  seeding  is  almost  or 
never  practiced  in  this  country.  Numerous  experiments  in 
the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  show  that  there  is  little  dif- 
ference in  the  yield  either  of  grain  or  straw  when  from  2  to  3 
bushels  are  sown,  but  that  the  yield  of  straw  increases  while 
that  of  grain  decreases  at  rates  of  less  than  2  bushels.  Within 
reasonable  limits,  the  number  of  culms  produced  from  thin 
seeding  will  be  as  great  as  from  thick  seeding,  as  thin  seeding 
induces  abundant  tillering. 

Oats  are  now  commonly  sown  with  some  form  of  broad- 
cast seeder  or  with  the  grain  drill.  Up  to  a  few  years  ago, 
large  acreages  of  oats  and  of  other  grains  were  sown  broad- 
cast by  hand  and  the  seed  covered  with  the  disk  harrow, 
spike-tooth  harrow,  or  cultivator.  This  practice  is  still 
quite  common  in  some  sections,  except  that  the  broadcast 
seeder  has  been  substituted  for  the  old  method  of  scattering 
the  seed  by  hand.  Seeding  with  the  grain  drill  is  usually 
considered  the  most  profitable  and  satisfactory  method  of 
sowing  oats,  for  all  the  seed  is  covered  to  a  uniform  depth, 
less  seed  is  required,  and  the  yields  are  usually  better. 
Uniform  depth  of  covering  is  an  aid  to  uniform  germination 
and  growth;  in  broadcast  seeding,  some  of  the  seed  may  not 
be  covered  at  all,  some  may  be  at  the  best  depth,  and  some 


HARROWING  OATS  191 

may  be  covered  too  deeply.  Less  seed  is  required  for  sowing 
with  the  drill,  since  there  is  no  loss  from  seed  which  fails  to 
grow  because  of  too  much  or  too  little  covering.  The  yield 
is  usually  better  because  of  the  more  uniform  stand  and 
growth  and  the  more  uniform  distribution  of  the  plants. 

The  proper  depth  to  cover  the  seed  depends  to  some 
extent  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  climatic  conditions. 
Seed  should  be  covered  somewhat  more  deeply  in  loose, 
sandy  soil  than  in  compact  clays  or  clay  loams.  In  semi- . 


Fig.  66.     Sowing  oats  on  a  field  which  was  in  corn  the  previous  year  and  which 
has  been  disked  but  not  plowed. 

arid  regions  where  the  surface  soil  is  likely  to  dry  out,  deeper 
seeding  is  necessary  than  where  plenty  of  moisture  is  avail- 
able. In  general,  covering  to  a  depth  of  from  1  to  2  inches 
will  give  best  results. 

232.  Harrowing.  Harrowing  oats  after  they  are  up 
is  often  recommended  as  a  means  of  saving  moisture  by 
breaking  the  crust  and  lessening  evaporation,  and  also  as  a 
means  of  destroying  weeds.  Harrowing  is  most  profitable 
in  the  drier  portions  of  the  country,  and  on  drilled  oats. 


192  FIELD  CROPS 

Harrowing  oats  which  were  sown  broadcast  destroys  a  part 
of  the  plants  and  thus  lessens  the  stand.  Drilled  oats  should 
be  harrowed  in  the  direction  of  the  drill  rows  and  not  across 
them.  The  roller  may  be  used  instead  of  the  harrow  while 
the  plants  are  small.  After  the  plants  are  too  high  to  work 
with  the  harrow,  cultivation  may  be  continued  for  some  time 
by  using  a  light  weeder.  Two  or  three  cultivations  are  about 
all  that  are  usually  profitable,  and  in  sections  where  the  rain- 
fall is  sufficient  for  the  best  growth  of  the  crop,  even  these 
may  be  an  added  expense  without  adequate  return.  The 
only  good  which  is  then  accomplished  is  the  destroying  of 
weeds. 

233.  Irrigation.    In  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific 
states,  large  acreages  of  oats  are  grown  under  irrigation. 
The  depth  of  water  which  is  applied  generally  ranges  from 
15  to  20  inches;  that  is,  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  soil  to 
this  depth  if  all  was  applied  at  the  same  time.    Usually, 
however,  the  water  is  put  on  in  two  or  three  applications, 
and  is  applied  so  slowly  that  it  soaks  into  the  soil  within  a 
few  hours  after  the  supply  is  shut  off.    Water  is  generally 
supplied  about  the  time  heading  begins  and  again  when  the 
grain  is  filling,  though  sometimes  the  land  is  irrigated  before 
or  immediately  after  seeding. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP 

234.  Cutting.    There  is  little  or  no  difference  in  the 
methods  of  harvesting  oats  and  those  which  have  already 
been  given  for  harvesting  wheat.    The  crop  is  usually  cut 
with  the  binder,  though  occasionally  the  header  is  used  in 
some  of  the  drier  sections.    When  the  straw  is  very  short, 
due  to  continued  dry  weather,  the  crop  may  be  cut  with  the 
mower,  raked  into  shocks  and  handled  like  hay.     It  may  then 
be  stacked  and  thrashed  the  same  as  grain  in  bundles,  or  it 


SHOCKING  OATS 


193 


may  be  fed  in  the  straw  like  hay.  The  only  difference  is 
that  if  it  is  to  be  fed  as  hay,  the  crop  should  be  cut  before 
it  is  fully  ripe,  as  many  of  the  leaves  will  be  lost  in  handling 
if  the  grain  is  allowed  to  mature,  and  the  straw  will  not  be  of 
as  good  quality  for  feed.  Grain  which  is  cut  with  the  mower 
should  be  handled  as  little  as  possible  to  avoid  shattering. 
Oats  should  not  be  cut  till  they  have  passed  the  hard  dough 
stage,  or  the  yield 
will  be  reduced 
and  the  grain  will 
be  green  and 
shrunken.  The 
best  time  to  cut 
is  just  before  the 
heads  turn  yellow, 
as  the  filling  of 
the  grain  will 
then  be  com- 
pleted in  the 
shock  and  there 
will  be  no  loss 
from  shattering. 
Winter  oats  in 
the  South  are  har- 
vested  in  the 
latter  part  of  May  and  the  first  half  of  June.  The  har- 
vesting of  spring  oats  is  begun  in  Texas  and  other  Southern 
states  in  June,  and  is  completed  in  the  North  about 
September  1.  Oat  harvest  in  Illinois  and  Iowa  is  in  the 
month  of  July. 

235.  Shocking.  Oats  cut  with  the  grain  binder  are 
usually  set  up  to  cure  in  shocks  of  ten  or  twelve  bundles. 
As  with  other  grains,  the  bundles  should  be  set  firmly  on  the 


Fig.  67.     A  good  shock  of  oats. 


194 


FIELD  CROPS 


butts  and  the  shocks  built  well  to  avoid  as  much  as  possible 
the  danger  of  blowing  over  in  stormc.  Much  of  the  value 
of  the  crop  depends  on  the  way  it  is  shocked,  for  poor  shock- 
ing exposes  the  grain  to  the  weather  and  causes  it  to  be 
greatly  damaged  in  color  and  quality  by  hard  rains.  It 
really  makes  little  difference  whether  the  long  or  the  round 
shock  is  built,  if  the  shock  is  properly  set  up  and  capped. 

Oats  are  often  put  into  shocks  without  capping,  but  this 
exposes  all  the  grain  to  the  weather,  when  nearly  all  could  be 
protected  by  putting  a  little  more  time  into  the  operation. 
The  cap  consists  of  one  or  two  bundles  laid  on  the  top  of  the 

shock  to  form  a 
protecting  cover. 
These  bundles 
should  be  firmly 
placed  and  so  laid 
that  they  will 
protect  as  large  a 
part  as  possible 
of  the  heads  of 
the  bundles  in 
the  shock.  If  two 
bundles  are  used 

in  capping,  the  head  of  one  should  overlap  the  head  of  the 
other.  The  long  shock  is  to  be  preferred  for  grain  that  is 
not  fully  ripe  or  that  contains  a.  considerable  proportion  of 
weeds,  because  it  allows  a  better  circulation  of  air  and 
dries  out  better  than  the  round  shock. 

236.  Stacking.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  stack  oats, 
though  thrashing  from  the  shock  is  a  very  common  practice 
in  some  sections.  If  good  weather  for  several  weeks  after 
harvest  could  be  assured,  and  a  thrashing  machine  could 
always  be  obtained  when  desired,  there  would  be  little 


Fig.  68.     A  setting  of  well-built  stacks  of  grain. 


THRASHING  OAT 8  195 

objection  to  the  practice  of  leaving  oats  in  the  shock  until 
thrashing  time.  Frequently,  however,  continued  rains  pre- 
vent thrashing  and  cause  much  damage  to  grain  which  is  left 
unstacked.  A  better  quality  of  grain  is  almost  always 
obtained  if  oats  are  stacked  about  ten  days  or  two  weeks 
after  harvest.  Stacking  and  thrashing  costs  about  one  cent 
a  bushel  more  than  thrashing  from  the  shock;  the  choice 
between  the  two  systems  depends  largely  on  the  season  and 
the  locality. 

If  the  grain  is  stacked,  it  should  be  left  in  the  shock  to 
cure  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  after  which  it  should  be  hauled 
to  a  convenient  place  near  the  barns  for  stacking.  The 
straw  can  then  be  placed  where  it  can  be  utilized  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  grain  should  be  dry  when  stacked,  as  it  is 
likely  to  mold  if  damp.  The  bottom  of  the  stack  should  be 
built  of  old  rails  or  some  similar  material  to  raise  it  a  few 
inches  off  the  ground  and  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture 
from  the  soil.  The  conical  form  of  stack  is  preferable  to  the 
long  rick  which  is  sometimes  built,  for  it  sheds  water  rather 
better.  Whatever  form  is  built,  the  bundles  should  be  so 
laid  that  all  the  grain  is  protected  from  weathering. 

237.  Thrashing.  If  grain  is  to  be  thrashed  from  the 
shock,  the  thrashing  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  bundles  are  well  cured,  thus  lessening  the  time  in  which 
it  can  be  damaged  by  bad  weather.  Stacked  grain  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  for  at  least  two  weeks  before  thrashing,  and 
a  longer  time  is  even  better.  The  grain  goes  through  a 
heating  or  sweating  process  both  in  the  shock  and  in  the 
stack,  and  should  not  be  thrashed  until  this  is  about  com- 
pleted. When  thrashed  from  the  shock,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly dry,  or  much  of  the  grain  will  not  be  removed  by  the 
thrasher.  Properly  stacked  grain  is  ready  for  thrashing 


196  FIELD  CROPS 

within  a  few  hours  after  a  rain,  or  as  soon  as  the  exposed 
portions  of  the  bundles  have  dried  off. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  the  thrashing  machine  to 
insure  the  removal  of  all  the  grain  from  the  straw,  and  to 
see  that  the  grain  is  thoroughly  cleaned  of  chaff  and  dirt. 
Thrashing  machines  in  good  order  can  do  a  very  thorough 
job  in  both  these  respects  if  properly  regulated.  The  straw 
should  be  put  up  in  good  stacks  or  run  into  the  barn,  for  it 
is  too  valuable  to  take  chances  on  having  it  spoiled  by  poor 
stacking  and  bad  weather. 

238.  Storing  the   Grain.    Oats   are   sometimes   hauled 
directly  from  the  thrashing  machine  to  the  elevator  and  sold, 
but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  crop  is  stored  to  be  used  on 
the  farm  or  to  be  sold  at  some  later  time.    More  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  oats  grown  in  the  United  States  are  fed  on  the 
farms  where  they  are  grown.     Clean,  tight  bins  are  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  storing  of  this  grain.    These  should  be 
placed  well  above  the  ground,  where  there  is  no  possibility 
of  the  grain  absorbing  moisture  from  the  soil.    They  should 
be  separated  by  a  tight  partition  from  the  portion  of  the  barn 
where  live  stock  is  kept,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture 
from  the  stable.    The  storage  bin,  however,  should  be  located 
near  the  place  where  the  grain  is  to  be  fed,  to  avoid  extra 
labor  in  handling.    In  the  Southern  and  Central  states, 
where  grain  is  frequently  destroyed  by  grain  weevils  and 
moths,  storing  in  tight  bins  with  covers  of  sheet  iron  or 
matched  lumber  is  almost  necessary  in  order  that  the  grain 
can  be  fumigated.     Some  means  of  keeping  mice  and  rats 
out  of  the  bins  should  be  provided  if  possible. 

MARKETING  AND  RETURNS 

239.  Market  Grades.    The  market  grades  for  oats  are 
less  strictly  adhered  to  than  those  for  wheat  and  barley,  and 


SHOCK  THRASHING 


197 


198  FIELD  CROPS 

little  difference  is  made  on  the  market  between  clean,  bright 
grain  and  that  which  contains  considerable  quantities  of 
chaff,  dirt,  and  weed  seeds,  or  is  discolored.  Usually  this 
difference  is  not  enough  to  pay  the  farmer  for  cleaning  his 
grain,  though  it  does  justify  him  in  demanding  proper 
separation  and  cleaning  by  the  thrashing  machine.  The 
market  grades  of  oats  depend  on  color,  weight,  and  freedom 
from  dirt  and  discoloration.  The  commercial  grades  are 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  white,  mixed,  and  red  or  rustproof  oats. 
In  white  oats,  a  special  grade  known  as  "standard "  is  pro- 
vided, ranking  between  No.  2  and  No.  3.  Most  of  the  oats 
sold  on  the  market  are  of  this  grade  or  No.  3.  Usually  there 
is  a  difference  of  1  or  2  cents  a  bushel  between  any  particular 
grade  and  the  one  next  below  of  the  same  color.  White 
oats  ordinarily  sell  higher  than  mixed  or  red  oats.  Grades 
are  also  provided  for  white  and  mixed  clipped  oats;  grain 
which  comes  under  this  classification  has  been  run  through  a 
machine  which  clips  off  the  long  tip  of  the  hull.  Clipped  oats 
weigh  about  3  pounds  to  the  bushel  more  than  undipped  oats 
otherwise  of  the  same  grade.  The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel 
of  oats  in  most  states  is  32  pounds;  in  Canada  it  is  34  pounds. 
The  weight  of  a  measured  bushel  is  extremely  variable, 
ranging  from  as  low  as  20  pounds  or  less  in  unfavorable 
years  in  the  South,  to  40  pounds  or  more  in  Montana,  Wash- 
ington, and  other  Northwestern  states. 

240.  Exports  and  Imports.  Only  about  2  per  cent  of  the 
oat  crop  is  exported,  and  in  some  years  the  export  trade 
falls  to  almost  nothing.  Very  small  quantities  are  imported. 
The  imports  usually  consist  of  grain  from  Canada  or  northern 
Europe  for  seed  purposes,  though  importations  have  been 
made  from  Argentina  in  seasons  when  there  was  an  unusual 
shortage  of  milling  oats  in  this  country. 


COST  OF  GROWING  OAT8  199 

241.  Prices.    The  price  of  oats  per  bushel  depends  on  the 
supply  not  only  of  this  crop  but  of  other  grains,  and  on  the 
local  demand.     The  mean  price  of  oats  on  the  farm  on 
December  1st  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911,  for  the 
entire  United  States,  was  36.8  cents  per  bushel,  ranging  from 
29.1  cents  in  1905  to  47.2  cents  in  1908.     The  highest 
average  price  is  to  be  found  in  the  Pacific  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tain states,  from  45  to  75  cents  a  bushel.     In  New  England 
and  the  South  the  price  is  but  little  lower,  while  in  the  upper 
Mississippi  Valley  where  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  raised,  the 
average  price  in  recent  years  has  been  from  30  to  40  cents. 

The  value  of  an  acre  of  oats  depends  naturally  on  the 
yield  and  the  value  per  bushel.  The  highest  values  are 
found  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  states,  where  high 
yield  and  high  price  are  combined;  but  as  most  of  this  grain 
is  grown  under  irrigation,  the  cost  of  production  is  also  high. 
High  values  are  also  prevalent  in  New  England.  In  the 
South,  the  high  price  makes  up  in  part  for  the  low  yield,  so 
that  the  acre  value  is  about  as  high  as  the  average  for  the 
entire  country.  The  lowest  acre  values  are  found  in  the 
states  of  largest  production,  where  medium  yields  are  com- 
bined with  low  price  per  bushel.  The  average  value  per 
acre  for  the  entire  United  States  for  the  ten  years  from  1902 
to  1911  was  about  $10.66.  The  value  in  the  New  England, 
Rocky  Mountain,  and  Pacific  states  ranged  from  $18  to  $30, 
while  in  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  some  of  the  adjoining  states 
the  acre  value  was  around  $8  or  $10. 

242.  Cost  of  Production.    The  most  definite  figures  on 
the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  or  a  bushel  of  oats  are  those 
collected  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station.    These  figures  showed  a  cost  of  from 
$7  to  $10  an  acre,  or  from  23  to  31  cents  a  bushel.     In  Illinois, 
the  cost  of  production  of  the  average  crop  of  oats  is  estimated 


200  FIELD  CROPS 

at  35  cents  a  bushel.  A  general  investigation  of  this  subject 
was  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  in  the  Crop  Reporter 
for  June,  1911,  where  estimates  of  some  five  thousand  corre- 
spondents in  all  parts  of  the  country  on  the  cost  of  producing 
oats  in  the  year  1909  are  tabulated.  The  average  of  all 
reports  showed  a  cost  of  $10.91  an  acre,  or  31  cents  a  bushel. 
The  average  farm  value  of  the  crop  that  year  was  placed  at 
$14.08  an  acre,  or  40  cents  a  bushel.  The  items  included  in 
the  cost  totals  were  commercial  fertilizers,  preparation  of  the 
land,  seed,  planting,  harvesting,  preparation  for  marketing, 
land  rental  or  interest  on  land  values,  and  miscellaneous 
items  of  expense.  The  largest  single  item  was  rent,  averag- 
ing $3.78  an  acre;  then  followed  preparation  of  the  land, 
$1.88;  preparing  for  market  (thrashing,  grading,  etc.),  $1.51; 
harvesting,  $1.34;  and  seed,  $1.12.  The  average  net  return 
from  the  grain  was  $3.17  an  acre,  to  which  should  be  added 
the  value  of  the  by-products,  $1.42,  making  an  average  total 
profit  of  $4.59  an  acre. 

The  cost  per  bushel  in  the  five  states  of  greatest  produc- 
tion was:  in  Iowa,  29  cents;  Illinois,  30  cents;  Wisconsin,  31 
cents;  Minnesota,  28  cents;  and  Nebraska,  30  cents.  These 
figures  show  a  margin  of  from  5  to  11  cents  net  profit  when 
compared  with  the  farm  prices  for  the  same  year.  When 
the  value  of  the  by-products  is  added,  the  net  return  per 
acre  was  $3.34  in  Iowa;  in  Illinois,  $3.79;  Wisconsin,  $6.24; 
Minnesota,  $3.93;  and  Nebraska,  $2.09.  The  highest  cost 
of  production  recorded  was  for  Maine,  $20.64  per  acre, 
with  a  net  return  including  the  value  of  the  by-products  of 
$6.52;  the  lowest  cost  was  for  North  Dakota,  $8.71,  with  a 
net  return  of  $3.47.  The  highest  net  return  for  any  state 
was  for  New  Hampshire,  $16.57  an  acre,  and  the  lowest,  for 
Nebraska,  $2.09. 


DISEASES  OF  OATS  201 

These  figures  show  that  there  is  ordinarily  little  profit  in 
growing  oats  where  low  or  average  yields  are  obtained,  par- 
ticularly when  the  value  of  the  straw  is  not  taken  into  con- 
sideration. It  is  probable  that  crops  of  oats  of  less  than  25 
bushels  to  the  acre  are  usually  produced  at  a  loss,  though  in 
the  South  the  high  value  per  bushel  sometimes  returns  a 
profit  from  yields  of  20  bushels  or  even  less. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

243.  Insect  Enemies.    Several  of  the  insects  which  are 
troublesome  in  wheat  are  also  destructive  to  oats,  though  this 
crop  is  seldom  seriously  injured  by  insect  pests.    Among  the 
more  troublesome  insects  in  oats  are  the  army  worm,  chinch 
bug,  green  bug  or  grain  aphis,  and  the  grasshopper.     Except 
in  years  of  specially  heavy  damage,  it  is  usually  not  profitable 
to  attempt  to  destroy  insects  in  oat  fields,  for  the  expense 
of  killing  them  is  greater  than  the  damage  they  do.     The 
means  of  combating  chinch  bugs  which  are  given  under 
wheat  (Sec.  208)  are  equally  applicable  for  oats  and  other 
crops.    The  most  destructive  insects  in  stored  grains  are 
the  Angoumois  grain  moth  and  the  various  grain  weevils. 
Oats,  because  of  the  protection  given  by  the  hull,  are  less 
frequently  damaged  by  these  insects  than  wheat,  rye,  or 
barley.     Placing  the  grain  in  tight  bins  and  fumigating  with 
carbon  bisulfid  or  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  recommended 
where  these  pests  are  common. 

244.  Diseases.    The    most    common    and    destructive 
diseases  which  attack  the  oat  crop  are  the  rusts  and  smuts. 
The  rusts  are  of  two  kinds,  usually  known  as  the  leaf  rust 
and  the  stem  rust,  from  the  portions  of  the  plant  which  they 
most  commonly  attack.    The  leaf  rust  of  oats  is  well  known 
to  everyone,   because  of  the  abundance  of  its  brick-red 
spores  on  the  leaves  and  stems  at  harvest  time  in  years 


202  FIELD  CROPS 

favorable  to  its  development.  The  stem  rust  of  oats  is  very 
similar  to  the  stem  rust  of  wheat,  appearing  as  black  spots 
or  blotches  on  the  leaves  and  stems  shortly  before  the  grain 
ripens.  The  stem  rust  is  rather  less  common  than  the  leaf 
rust,  but  when  it  occurs  it  injures  the  crop  more  seriously. 
Both  these  rusts  are  very  common  in  the  South,  appearing 
practically  every  year.  In  the  Northern  states,  where 
climatic  conditions  are  more  favorable  to  the  growth  of  oats, 
rust  injury  is  decidedly  less  frequent.  It  is  most  likely  to 
occur  in  wet  seasons,  when  the  growth  of  the  crop  is  rank. 
Oats  on  rich,  wet  land  are  particularly  likely  to  be  damaged 
by  rust.  The  conditions  favorable  to  the  development  of 
this  disease  are  soft,  rank  growth;  damp,  cloudy  weather  or 
heavy  dews;  and  land  which  is  particularly  retentive  of 
moisture.  No  effective  remedies  have  yet  been  discovered. 
Some  varieties  or  strains  of  cats  appear  to  be  more  rust 
resistant  than  others,  and  plant  breeders  are  attempting  to 
develop  this  quality  to  a  still  greater  degree.  The  best  pre- 
ventive measure  is  to  sow  this  grain  on  well  drained  land 
which  is  not  too  rich,  thus  avoiding  as  much  as  possible  the 
danger  of  too  rank  growth  and  the  moist  conditions  so  con- 
ducive to  the  development  of  rust. 

Oat  smut  is  also  of  two  kinds,  the  loose  and  the  covered. 
These  smuts  differ  but  little  in  appearance,  and  their  life 
histories  are  practically  the  same.  The  spore  enters  the 
growing  point  of  the  plant  about  the  time  germination  takes 
place,  and  the  slender  threads  of  the  smut  fungus  develop 
in  the  tissues  of  the  plant  along  with  its  natural  growth. 
The  smut  reaches  its  mature  form  in  masses  of  black,  powdery 
dust,  or  .spores,  which  replace  part  or  all  of  the  oat  head.  In 
loose  smut  the  chaff  as  well  as  the  grain  itself  is  replaced 
by  the  smut  masses,  while  in  covered  smut  the  chaff  remains 
in  its  natural  state,  enclosing  the  smut  spores.  Smutted 


OAT  SMUT 


203 


heads  mature  before  the  healthy  ones,  and  as  the  straw  of 
the  diseased  plants  is  usually  shorter,  the  smutted  heads  are 
not  readily  seen  at  harvest  time  and  the  actual  damage  from 
the  disease  is  usually  underestimated.  It  probably  averages 
2  or  3  per  cent  of  the  crop,  or  from  $6,000,000  to  $10,000,000 
annually  for  the  United 
States.  In  some  fields 
it  may  destroy  as  much 
as  half  the  crop.  For- 
tunately, both  kinds  of 
oat  smut  are  easily  and 
cheaply  controlled  by 
the  use  of  the  formalde- 
hyde solution  (Sec.  205). 
This  treatment  is  so 
cheap  and  so  entirely 
effective  that  farmers 
can  not  afford  to  neg- 
lect it.  Seed  should  be 
treated  at  least  as  often 
as  every  alternate  year, 
and  treatment  every 
year  is  much  safer. 
Even  though  all  the 
smut  on  a  given  farm 
may  be  destroyed,  it  is 
pretty  certain  that  some 
of  the  spores  will  be 
scattered  through  the 
thrashed  grain,  having  been  carried  from  neighboring 
farms  in  the  thrashing  machine,  so  that  treatment  every 
year  is  the  surest  way  of  keeping  down  this  disease. 


Fig.  70.     Oat  smut;  normal  head  at  the  left, 
smutted  head  on  the  right. 


204  FIELD  CROPS 

RELATION  TO  OTHER  CROPS 

245.  Place  in  the  Rotation.    In  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  the 
other  states  of  the  corn  belt,  oats  usually  follow  corn.    A 
common  rotation  where  winter  wheat  is  not  grown  in  this 
section  consists  of  two  crops  of  corn,  followed  by  a  crop  of 
oats  and  one  or  more  crops  of  grass  or  clover.    In  Maine, 
Minnesota,  and  other  states  where  potatoes  are  an  important 
crop,  a  common  rotation  consists  of  one  crop  each  of  potatoes, 
oats,  and  clover.     In  the  South,  a  good  rotation  which 
includes  winter  oats  and  the  two  most  important  crops  of 
the  Southern  states,  corn  and  cotton,  is  as  follows:    First 
year,  cotton;  second  year,  corn,  with  cowpeas  sown  in  the 
corn;  third  year,  winter  oats  sown  after  the  corn  is  removed, 
and  followed  with  cowpeas  to  be  cut  for  hay.     All  these 
rotations  include  a  leguminous  crop  to  add  nitrogen  to  the 
soil.     In  the  grain-growing  sections  of  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas,  where  no  regular  rotation  is  practiced,  oats  are 
usually  grown  after  wheat.     Experiments  indicate  that  better 
yields  are  obtained  where  oats  follow  wheat  than  where 
wheat  follows  oats  in  a  rotation  which  includes  both  crops; 
that  is,  that  corn,  wheat,  oats,  is  a  better  sequence  than 
corn,  oats,  wheat. 

246.  Use  as  a  Nurse  Crop.     Oats  are  largely  used  as  a 
nurse  crop;  the  practice  of  seeding  to  grass  and  clover  with 
oats  is  a  very  common  one.     While  this  method  of  attempt- 
ing to  establish  a  meadow  or  pasture  is  so  often  used,  it  is 
not  always  successful.    As  oats  draw  heavily  on  the  soil 
moisture  and  also  shade  the  ground  closely,  barley  and 
wheat,  which  take  less  moisture  from  the  soil  and  make  less 
shade,  are  better  nurse  crops.     Oats  start  growth  early  in 
the  season,  and  on  account  of  their  dense  growth  are  a 
fairly  good  crop  to  clear  the  land  of  weeds;  barley  is  rather 


U8E8  OF  OATS  205 

better,  however,  since  it  matures  earlier  in  the  season,  and  is 
cut  before  many  of  the  weeds  have  matured  their  seeds.  If 
oats  are  used  as  a  nurse  crop,  an  early  variety  should  be  sown, 
and  it  should  be  seeded  thinly. 

247.  Sowing   with   Other   Grains.    A   rather   common 
practice  among  some  farmers,  particularly  in  Canada  and 
in  some  of  the  Northern  states,  is  to  sow  oats  with  some  other 
small  grain  crop,  as  barley  or  wheat.    In  Canada,  the  most 
common   combination   is   oats   and   barley.    Experiments 
show  that  larger  yields  of  grain  in  total  pounds  are  produced 
from  a  combination  which  is  about  half  barley  and  half  oats 
than  from  either  alone.     In  order  to  have  the  two  grains 
mature  at  the  same  time,  a  rather  late  barley  and  a  medium 
early  oat  are  necessary.    In  Minnesota  and  some  other 
states,  wheat  and  oats  are  often  grown  together.    While  the 
oats  and  barley  grown  in  mixtures  in  Canada  are  usually 
fed  together  on  the  farm  or  sold  as  feed,  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  separating  the  two  grains,  mixtures  of  wheat  and 
oats  are  frequently  taken  to  elevators  to  be  separated,  the 
oats  being  then  returned  to  the  farm  and  the  wheat  sold.     It 
is  doubtful  if  the  increased  yield  from  this  combination  is 
sufficient  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  separation,  but  where  all 
the  grain  is  fed  on  the  farm,  the  growing  together  of  varieties 
of  barley  and  oats  which  ripen  at  the  same  time  often 
increases  the  profits  from  these  crops. 

THE  USES  OF  OATS 

248.  Feeding  to  Stock.    By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
oat  crop  is  fed  to  live  stock,  principally  to  horses.    Oats 
have  long  been  regarded  as  the  best  grain  feed  for  horses, 
and  while  corn  has  rather  largely  replaced  them  for  this  pur- 
pose in  recent  years  on  account  of  its  relatively  lower  price, 
they  are  still  in  high  favor  among  horsemen.    For  feeding  to 


206  FIELD  CROPS 

other  stock,  oats  are  commonly  mixed  with  corn  if  used  at 
all.  They  are  an  excellent  grain  for  dairy  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  hulls  make  them  objectionable  for  feeding  to  hogs, 
because  the  small  stomachs  of  these  animals  are  not  able  to 
hold  enough  of  this  grain  to  allow  them  to  utilize  it  to 
advantage.  Ground  oats  mixed  with  swill  make  an  excellent 
mash  to  feed  to  brood  sows,  however,  and  are  highly  recom- 
mended by  hog  raisers. 

In  feeding  value,  oats  compare  very  favorably  with  wheat, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  contain  a  much  larger  pro- 
portion of  crude  fiber  (the  hull).  In  protein  content  they  are 
slightly  lower  than  wheat  but  higher  than  barley  or  corn,  con- 
taining 9.2  pounds  to  100  pounds  of  dry  matter.  They  are 
rather  low  in  carbohydrates,  47.3  pounds  in  100,  as  com- 
pared with  65  to  69  in  the  other  grains;  but  contain  as  much 
fat  as  corn,  4.2  pounds,  and  more  than  double  the  quantity 
found  in  wheat  or  barley.  Oats  are  a  muscle-building  rather 
than  a  fattening  feed,  and  are  more  valuable  for  animals  at 
hard  work,  like  horses  or  dairy  cows,  than  for  fattening 
animals,  like  beef  cattle.  On  account  of  the  mineral  matter 
they  contain,  which  is  largely  utilized  by  animals  in  the  for- 
mation of  bones,  as  well  as  the  protein,  which  is  the  muscle- 
building  element,  oats  are  an  excellent  feed  for  young  and 
growing  animals  of  all  kinds.  They  are  largely  used  by 
poultry  raisers,  particularly  for  feeding  to  flocks  which  are 
kept  for  egg  production. 

249.  Use  as  Human  Food.  Oats  have  long  been  used 
as  food  in  Scotland,  but  have  only  recently  come  into  com- 
mon use  in  other  countries.  In  Scotland,  oats  are  generally 
used  as  groats  (the  hulled  grain  soaked  and  eaten  raw,  or 
cooked  in  the  form  of  mush  or  of  thin  cakes)  rather  than  in 
the  form  of  flakes  or  rolled  oats  so  common  in  this  country. 
Oatmeal  when  properly  cooked  is  the  best  and  cheapest  of 


OAT  STRAW  207 

the    cereal    foods.     Long    cooking    is    necessary    to    make 
digestible  all  the  protein  it  contains. 

250.  Oat  Straw.    The  only  by-product  resulting  from 
the  production  of  oat  grain  is  oat  straw,  which  is  largely  used 
for  feeding  to  stock  as  roughage.     Oat  straw  is  higher  in 
feeding  value  and  is  more  readily  eaten  by  stock  than  the 
straw  from  any  other  grain.     It  is  practically  equal  to  corn 
stover  (corn  stalks  with  the  ears  removed)  for  feeding.     It  is 
too  bulky  for  feeding  to  fattening  animals  or  those  at  hard 
work,  except  as  a  small  part  of  the  ration,  but  as  a  main- 
tenance ration  to  ''winter  over"  stock,  it  is  excellent  when 
fed  with  a  little  good  hay  or  some  grain.     Straw  which  is  not 
utilized  for  feed  is  commonly  used  as  bedding  for  animals, 
a  purpose  to  which  it  is  well  adapted,  for  it  absorbs  liquids 
readily  and  soon  decays  in  the  manure.    As  it  is  less  harsh 
than  the  straw  of  other  grains  and  is  free  from  beards,  it  is  to 
be  preferred  for  this  purpose.     The  fertilizing  value  of  a  ton 
of  straw  at  present  prices  is  about  S3  a  ton,  so  that  no  one 
can  afford  to  burn  it.    Where  it  is  not  possible  to  utilize  the 
straw  either  as  feed  or  bedding,  it  will  usually  pay  to  spread 
it  on  the  land  and  plow  it  under  to  add  vegetable  matter  to 
the  soil. 

251.  By-Products  of  Milling.    The  by-products  of  the 
oat  milling  industry  are  not  very  important,  since  they  con- 
stitute only  a  small  part  of  the  grain  by-products.    Quite 
frequently  the  oat  hulls,  light  oats,  and  oat  dust  are  ground 
with  corn   and  sold  as  corn-and-oat  feeds.    These  feeds  are 
decidedly  variable  in  their  character,  depending  very  largely 
on  the  proportion  of  oat  hulls  they  contain,  and  should  be 
carefully  examined  before  a  purchase  is  made.    Ground  corn 
and  oats  make  an  excellent  feed  but  it  should  not  contain  an 
unusually  large  percentage  of  oat  hulls,  showing  the  addition 
of  this  refuse  to  the  whole  grain. 


208  FIELD  CROPS 

252.  Oats  for  Hay  and  Pasture.    If  oats  are  cut  before 
the  grain  matures,  while  the  leaves  are  still  green  and  the 
straw  is  soft,  hay  of  excellent  quality  can  be  made.    Field 
peas  are  frequently  sown  with  oats  when  the  crop  is  to  be 
cured  into  hay  or  is  to  be  cut  green  for  feeding.    Peas  add  to 
the  yield  as  well  as  to  the  feeding  value  of  the  crop.    A  com- 
mon rate  of  seeding  is  1  bushel  of  peas  and  \Y^  bushels  of  oats 
to  the  acre.    Oats  and  peas  may  also  be  used  as  pasture  for 
stock  of  all  kinds  where  permanent  pasture  is  lacking.     Hogs 
should  not  be  turned  in  on  this  pasture  until  the  peas  have 
made  considerable  growth,  as  they  will  quickly  destroy  the 
young  plants.     Sheep  and  hogs  will  make  good  use  of  both 
peas  and  oats  if  they  are  not  turned  on  the  crop  until  it 
matures. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  CROP 

253.  Opportunities  for  Improvement.    The  oat  crop  has 
received  much  less  attention  from  plant  breeders  and  farmers 
in  America  than  corn  and  wheat.    Some  European  breeders 
have  devoted  their  efforts  to  the  improvement  of  oats  and 
have  obtained  remarkably  good  results.    Some  of  the  best 
varieties  of  oats  now  grown  in  the  United  States,  particularly 
in  the  northern  portion,  have  been  produced  by  Swedish  and 
English  plant  breeders.    A  number  of  the  state  experiment 
stations  are  now  devoting  considerable  attention  to  oat 
breeding,  and  the  development  of  some  excellent  high-yield- 
ing strains  is  likely  to  result. 

Among  the  qualities  which  are  desirable  in  a  good  strain 
of  oats,  and  which  breeders  aim  to  combine  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  are  increased  yield,  increased  size  of  individual 
grains,  greater  weight  per  bushel,  greater  proportion  of  ker- 
nel to  hull,  earlier  maturity,  and  greater  resistance  to  lodg- 
ing and  disease.  Most  of  these  factors  operate  in  one  way 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  OATS  209 

or  another  to  increase  the  total  yield.  Early  maturity  is 
particularly  desirable  in  the  Southern  and  Central  states,  so 
that  the  grain  may  ripen  before  the  hot  summer  weather, 
which  is  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  this  crop.  An  increase 
in  the  proportion  of  kernel  to  hull  is  specially  desired  by 
manufacturers  of  oatmeal  and  by  stock  feeders,  for  the  hull 
is  of  little  or  no  value. 

254.  Methods  of  Improvement.  Some  improvement  in 
the  quality  and  yield  of  the  crop  may  be  obtained  by  cleaning 
and  grading  the  seed  grain,  sowing  only  the  heaviest  and 
best  seed.  A  considerable  increase  in  yield  will  be  secured 
if  this  process  is  continued  from  year  to  year.  The  careful 
selection  in  the  field  of  a  quantity  of  good  heads  of  the  same 
type  and  from  plants  which  are  growing  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, and  the  planting  of  the  grain  from  these  heads  in  a 
separate  plat  for  seed  production,  will  result  in  a  marked 
improvement  of  the  crop.  The  best  and  most  reliable 
method  for  improving  oats  and  developing  new  strains  is  to 
make  selections  of  individual  plants  or  heads,  and  to  plant 
the  seed  from  each  of  these  individuals  in  separate  rows. 
The  best  strains  can  then  be  selected  and  the  seed  thrashed 
and  planted  at  a  uniform  rate  in  rows  of  a  given  length  the 
following  year,  so  as  to  obtain  a  reliable  test  of  their  yielding 
power.  Each  strain  should  be  thrashed  by  itself  and  the 
yield  recorded  each  year,  and  the  best  strains  planted  on  a 
larger  scale  the  succeeding  year.  In  this  way,  pure  strains 
can  be  developed,  either  by  straight  selection  or  from  plants 
produced  by  hybridization.  The  production  of  oat  hybrids 
is  rather  a  difficult  process  and  is  usually  attempted  only  by 
professional  plant  breeders.  The  selection  of  individual 
plants  for  several  successive  years  is  sometimes  necessary 
before  strains  which  will  "come  true"  are  obtained. 


210  FIELD  CROP8 

255.  Judging.  A  number  of  the  agricultural  colleges 
have  devised  score  cards  for  the  use  of  their  classes  in  judg- 
ing oats.  While  these  differ  in  some  minor  points,  they  are 
usually  based  on  the  uniformity  of  the  sample;  the  freedom 
from  other  grains,  weed  seeds,  and  dirt;  the  odor,  the  weight 
per  bushel,  and  the  percentage  of  hull  to  kernel.  In  some 
cases  the  germination  is  taken  into  account.  A  good 
example  of  score  cards  of  this  kind  is  the  one  used  by  the 
College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  This 
score  card  is  as  follows : 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  OATS 

Trueness  to  type  or  breed  characteristics 5  points 

Uniformity  in  size  and  shape  of  kernels 10  points 

Color  of  grain 5  points 

Freedom  from  mixture  with  other  grains 5  points 

Size  of  kernel 10  points 

Per  cent  and  nature  of  weed  seed,  dirt,  and  other 

foreign  material 15  points 

Odor — musty,  smutty,  sulfur 15  points 

Weight  per  bushel 10  points 

Percentage  of  meat  to  hull 10  points 

Viability 15  points 

Total. . 100  points 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  If  material  is  available  either  from  the  field  or  from  stored 
samples,  let  each  student  write  a  complete  description  of  the  mature 
oat  plant. 

2.  Let  each  student  bring  in  a  sample  of  thrashed  oats  and  care- 
fully weigh  out  a  portion  of  it.     Then  separate  the  whole  grains  from 
the  weed  seeds,  chaff,  and  broken  grains,  and  weigh  each  lot  and  figure 
the  percentage  of  good  seed.     Now  divide  the  whole  grain  into  large 
and  small  kernels  and  figure  the  percentage  of  large,  strong  grains  which 
the  sample  contains. 

3.  Take  samples  of  "the  large  and  small  grains  and  make  a  germi- 
nation test.     Study  the  differences  in  the  growth  of  the  two  sets  of 
plants  carefully.     It  might  be  well  also  to  grow  small  plats  from  large 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  211 

and  small  grain  on  the  experimental  grounds,  making  careful  note  of 
any  differences  in  vigor  of  growth. 

4.  Make  up  solutions  of  formaldehyde,  mixing  it  with  water  in  the 
proportions  of  1  to  400,  and  1  to  200.     Figure  how  many  gallons  of  wnter 
would  be  used  to  1  pound  (a  pint)  of  formaldehyde  at  each  of  these 
rates.     Treat  small  lots  of  seed  for  smut  in  each  of  the  following  ways  : 

(1.)  No  treatment. 

(2.)  Soak  15  minutes  in  the  1  to  400  solution. 

(3.)  Soak  15  minutes  in  the  1  to  200  solution. 

(4.)  Soak  30  minutes  in  the  1  to  400  solution. 

(5.)  Soak  30  minutes  in  the  1  to  200  solution. 

(6.)  Sprinkle  till  thoroughly  wet  with  the  1  to  400  solution. 

(7.)  Sprinkle  till  thoroughly  wet  with  the  1  to  200  solution. 
In  the  soaking  treatments,  the  seed  should  be  stirred  sufficiently  so  that 
it  is  all  thoroughly  wet.  After  it  has  been  soaked  the  required  time,  it 
should  be  drained  and  dried.  The  seed  which  is  sprinkled  should  be 
covered  with  a  heavy  cloth  over  night  and  dried  the  following  day. 
A  germination  test  should  then  be  made  of  each  sample.  Some  of  them 
will  probably  show  some  injury  from  the  treatment.  If  the  seed  is 
known  to  be  infected  with  smut  to  some  extent,  it  will  be  interesting  to 
grow  small  lots  from  the  different  samples  on  the  experimental  grounds 
and  determine  the  effectiveness  of  the  different  treatments. 

5.  Plant  lots  of  oat  grains  in  a  box  or  in  the  open  ground,  covering 
them  1,  2,  3,  and  4  inches  deep.     Determine  the  percentage  of  germi- 
nation at  each  of  the  different  depths. 

6.  Let  each  student  bring  a  sample  of  oats  from  home  and  scoro  it 
according  to  the  score  card  (Sec.  255)  or,  if  preferred,  the  card  used  in 
your  state  agricultural  college.     Write  the  reasons  for  the  markings 
given.     If  several  samples  can  be  scored  by  each  student,  so  much  the 
better.     Check  up  each  score  carefully. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

250.  The  Prevention  of  Loose  Smut  of  Oats. 

388.  Methods  of  Seeding  Oats,  (pp.  12-16). 

395.  Sixty-Day  and  Kherson  Oats. 

420.  Oats:     Distribution  and  Uses. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  485-494. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  170-178. 
Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  280-317. 


CHAPTER  VI 
BARLEY 

HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION 

256.  Origin  and  History.    Barley  belongs  to  the  division 
of  the  grass  family  known  as  the  genus  Hordeum.    It  is 
among  the  oldest  of  cultivated  plants,  for  it  is  mentioned  in 
some  of  the  earlier  books  of  the  Bible,  and  carvings  on  the 
ancient  Egyptian  tombs  show  heads  of  this  grain.      It  was 
probably  cultivated  at  as  early  a  date  as  wheat,  and  much 
earlier  than  either  oats  or  rye.    As  with  many  of  our  other 
cultivated  plants,  the  exact  place  of  origin  and  the  original 
species  are  not  now  known.    A  wild  form  known  as  Hordeum 
spontaneum,  which  grows  in  Asia  Minor,  is  regarded  by  some 
botanists  as  the  original  type,  and  it  is  very  probable  that 
the  cultivation  of  this  grain  was  begun  in  some  portion  of 
western  Asia.    The  most  common  closely  related  species 
in  this  country  is  the  wild  barley  or  squirrel-tail  grass, 
Hordeum  jubatum,  one  of  the  worst  weeds  in  meadows  and 
pastures  in  our  Northwestern  prairie  states.    Barley  was 
brought  to  Massachusetts  and  Virginia  by  the  early  colonists, 
and  has  since  been  generally  cultivated  in  North  America. 

257.  Botanical  Characters.    The  cultivated  varieties  of 
barley  are  all  grouped  by  botanists  under  a  single  species, 
Hordeum  sativum.    The  plant  makes  a  somewhat  shorter 
growth  than  wheat  or  rye,  though  otherwise  it  is  quite  similar 
to  those  grains.    The  number  of  culms  or  stems,  which  are 
produced  varies  with  the  thickness  of  the  stand,  but  may  be 
as  high  as  15  or  20  where  the  plants  have  plenty  of  room. 
The  leaves  are  broader  than  those  of  the  other  grains,  and 


VARIETIES  OF  BARLEY  213 

are  of  a  grayish-green  color.  The  head  is  similar  to  that  of 
wheat,  consisting  of  a  spike  with  spikelets  arranged  along  a 
central  stem  or  rachis.  The  spikelets  are  arranged  in  groups 
of  three  alternately  at  the  joints  of  the  rachis,  making  six 
rows  of  grain  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  spike.  The 
two-rowed  appearance  of  some  varieties  of  barley  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  only  the  central  one  of  the  three  flowers  on  the 
spikelet  is  fertile  and  produces  grain.  Many  of  the  varieties 
are  bearded  or  awned;  in  some,  the  beard  is  replaced  by  a 
three-forked  appendage  or  hood.  The  grain  is  usually 
enclosed  within  the  flowering  glume  or  hull,  though  some 
Varieties  thrash  clean  like  wheat. 

258.  Classification.  Varieties  of  barley  may  be  divided 
into  classes  along  several  lines.  The  first  general  division 
into  two-rowed  and  six-rowed  forms  is  based  on  the  fertility 
or  infertility  of  the  lateral  spikelets,  as  stated  in  the  preceding 
paragraph.  Six-rowed  barley  is  of  two  general  forms,  the 
round  and  the  square,  of  which  the  square  type  is  the  more 
common.  The  former  is  the  type  usually  known  as  six- 
rowed,  while  the  square  type  is  often  spoken  of  as  four- 
rowed.  The  four-rowed  appearance  is  due  to  a  twisting  of 
the  lateral  spikelets,  so  that  the  grain  at  the  left  of  one 
spikelet  is  in  line  with  that  on  the  right  of  the  opposite  one, 
the  two  rows  appearing  as  one.  Two  types  of  two-rowed 
barley  are  also  grown,  one  with  a  short,  broad  head  and  the 
other  with  a  long,  slender  one;  the  latter  is  the  common 
form.  Another  division  may  be  made  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  awns  or  beards,  the  classes  then  being  known  as 
bearded  and  hooded,  or  beardless.  Still  other  classes  are 
the  common  or  hulled  and  the  hull-less,  the  division  being 
made  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  grain  thrashes 
from  the  head. 


214 


FIELD  CROPS 


As  with  wheat,  there  are  winter  and  spring  forms.  Win- 
ter barley  is  less  hardy  than  winter  wheat,  but  more  so  than 
winter  oats.  The  winter  varieties  usually  grown  are  of  the 


Fig.  71.  Grains  ol  six-rowed  (on  the  left)  and  two-rowed  (on  the  right) 
barley.  The  grains  in  the  lateral  spikelets  of  six-rowed  barley  are  com- 
pressed as  shown;  there  should  be  twice  as  many  of  these  compressed  grains 
as  of  fully  developed  ones  in  a  sample  of  this  type.  Note  that  there  are  no 
compressed  grains  in  the  two-rowed  barley. 

six-rowed  bearded  hulled  type,  though  almost  any  variety 
will  survive  the  winter  in  the  milder  portions  of  the  South. 
The  cultivation  of  winter  barley  is  mostly  confined  to  the 


CLASSES  OF  BARLEY 


215 


Fig.  72.     Six-rowed  bearded,  two-rowed  bearded,  and  six-rowed  hooded  barley. 


216  FIELD  CROPS 

Southern  and  Pacific  states.  Most  of  the  barley  sown  in 
the  spring  in  the  Northern  states  is  of  the  two-rowed  and  six- 
rowed  bearded  hulled  types;  in  the  irrigated  states  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region  the  six-rowed  bearded  hull-less  is 
grown.  Other  types  less  commonly  grown  are  the  hull-less 
six-rowed  bearded,  the  hulled  six-rowed  hooded,  the  hull-less 
two-rowed  bearded,  and  the  hulled  two-rowed  hooded. 

259.  Leading  Varieties.    The  type  which  is  generally 
grown  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  the  area 
of  largest  production,  is  the  common  or  hulled    six-rowed 
bearded,  the  most  popular  varieties  being  Manchuria  and 
Oderbrucker.    This  type  is  also  grown  in  New  York  and  the 
other  Eastern  states,  and  in  California.    The  most  common 
varieties  in  California  are  the  Bay  Brewing  and  the  Cali- 
fornia Feed.    In  North  and  South  Dakota,  the  long,  slender 
type  of  two-rowed  bearded  barley  is  most  commonly  grown, 
Chevalier  and  Hanna  being  the  most  prominent  varieties. 
In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  particularly  at  high  altitudes, 
the  hooded  hull-less  type  is  most  prevalent,  though  some 
hooded  hulled  barley  is  grown.    Varietal  names  in  the 
hull-less  barleys  are  largely  based  on  the  color  of  the  grain, 
as  White  Hull-less  and  Black  Hull-less.    This  type  of  barley 
weighs  60  pounds  to  the  bushel,  while  the  legal  weight  of  a 
bushel  of  hulled  or  common  barley  is  48  pounds  in  most  of 
the  states. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CROP 

260.  World  Production.    The  production  of  barley,  like 
that  of  wheat  and  oats,  is  largely  confined  to  the  North 
Temperate  zone.    The  total   production  of  the  world  is 
about    1,500,000,000   bushels   as    compared    with    about 
4,000,000,000  bushels  each  of  corn,  wheat,  and  oats.    The 
leading  country  in  barley  production  is  European  Russia, 


THE  BARLEY  PRODUCING  STATES  217 

with  an  average  annual  yield  of  385,880,000  bushels  for  the 
five  years  from  1906  to  1910.  This  is  about  one-fourth  of 
the  total  production  of  the  world.  Other  countries  in  which 
the  production  is  large  are  the  United  States,  with  166,000,- 
000  bushels  annually;  Germany,  148,000,000  bushels; 
Austria-Hungary,  143,000,000  bushels;  Japan,  87,000,000 
bushels;  Spain,  74,000,000  bushels;  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  68,000,000  bushels;  and  Canada,  48,000,000  bushels. 
261.  Production  in  the  United  States.  Barley  is  ninth 
in  value  among  our  field  crops,  ranking  below  corn,  cotton, 
wheat,  hay,  oats,  potatoes,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  It  is  fourth 

CALIF,    ^•^^•••^•^••••••^••••••••^^^•••a  20-85% 

MINN.  •^•••^^•^•^•••^•••^•^•••l^H^^BB  19.29% 
W/S.     •••^•••••••••••••••B  /2->9% 


IOWA    MHHHM^MMHBl  8.44% 


12.2T% 


Fig.  73.     Percentage  of  the  total  barley  crop  of  the  United  States  produced 
in  the  eight  states  of  largest  production,  1902-1911. 

among  the  cereals,  following  corn,  wheat,  and  oats,  and 
ranking  above  rice  and  rye.  The  average  area  devoted  to 
barley  in  the  United  States  during  the  ten  years  from  1902 
to  1911  was  6,238,000  acres.  During  this  period  the  mean 
yield  was  25.26  bushels  to  the  acre;  the  average  annual 
production,  154,988,000  bushels;  and  the  average  annual 
farm  value,  $83,787,000.  The  leading  states  in  barley  pro- 
duction are  California,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  North  Dakota, 
and  South  Dakota.  The  average  annual  acreage,  production, 
and  value  of  the  barley  crop  in  the  ten  states  of  largest  pro- 
duction, for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911,  are  shown  in 
Table  XII,  while  the  proportion  of  the  total  crop  of  the 


218 


FIELD  CROPS 


United  States  produced  in  the  more  important  states  is 
graphically  shown  in  Fig.  73. 

Table  XII.  The  average  annual  acreage,  production,  and  farm  val- 
ue, and  the  mean  yield  per  acre  of  barley  in  the  ten  leading  states 
for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911. 


Area 

Yield 
per  acre 

Production 

Farm  value 
Dec.  1. 

California 

Acres 

1  252,000 

Bushels 

25.7 

Bushels 

32,312,000 

Dollars 

20  298  000 

Minnesota  

1,233,000 

24.7 

29,904,000 

13  076  000 

Wisconsin  
North  Dakota.. 
South  Dakota.. 
Iowa  

675,000 
816,000 
711,000 
514,000 

28.3 
22.0 
24.1 
25.5 

18,889,000 
16,780,000 
15,398,000 
13,083,000 

11,109,000 
7,567,000 
6,992,000 
6,211,000 

Washington.  .  .  . 
Kansas  
Idaho  

165,000 
213,000 
75,000 

36.4 
18.1 
39.4 

6,000,000 
3,610,000 
2,884,000 

3,391,000 
1,484,000 
1  672  000 

Oregon  

77,000 

31.8 

2,398,000 

1,420,000 

As  shown  by  the  table  and  the  accompanying  diagram, 
the  greater  portion  of  the  barley  crop  is  produced  in  Califor- 
nia and  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley.  In  California, 
barley  is  most  largely  grown  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacra- 
mento valleys.  Southern  Wisconsin,  southern  Minnesota, 
northern  Iowa,  eastern  North  and  South  Dakota,  and  eastern 
Washington  are  other  sections  of  importance  in  the  produc- 
tion of  this  crop.  California  produces  more  than  one-fifth 
of  the  barley  of  the  entire  country,  while  Minnesota/ 
Wisconsin,  and  the  Dakotas  grow  about  two-thirds  of  the 
remainder,  or  more  than  half  of  the  entire  crop.  The 
highest  yields  to  the  acre  are  obtained  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain section  and  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The  average 
yield  in  Idaho  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911  was  349. 
bushels;  in  Utah,  38.5  bushels;  and  in  Washington,  370. 
bushels.  In  comparison  with  these  figures,  the  average 


SOILS  FOR  BARLEY  219 

yield  to  the  acre  in  California  was  25.7  bushels;  in  Minne- 
sota, 24.7  bushels;  and  in  Wisconsin,  28.3  bushels. 

Barley  occupies  a  more  important  position  in  California 
than  in  any  other  state,  10.73  per  cent  of  the  improved  farm 
land  being  planted  to  this  crop,  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing diagram  (Fig.  74).  It  ranks  next  in  importance  in 
Minnesota,  occupying  about  one-sixteenth  of  the  improved 
farm  area,  or  about  one-half  as  much  land  as  is  annually 
planted  to  oats  in  that  state.  In  Wisconsin,  the  area  planted 
to  oats  is  nearly  four  times  as  large  as  that  planted  to  barley. 
Only  1.4  per  cent  of  the  entire  farm  area  of  the  United  States 


CALIF. 


MINN,  mmmuf^tmmammi^^mmmmmmmm  6.48% 

WIS    .  MHHHi^^BMHMMHHHM 


5.43.  % 


KAHS.mmm  0.77  °/0 

Fig.  74.     Percentage  of  improved  farm  land  annually  sown  to  barley  in  the 
states  of  largest  production,  and  in  the  United  States,  1902-1911. 

is  devoted  to  barley,  as  compared  with  21.86  per  cent  to 
corn,  10.47  per  cent  to  wheat,  and  7.13  per  cent  to  oats. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  CROP 

262.  Soils  Adapted  to  Barley  Production.  The  best  soil 
for  barley  is  a  well-drained  loam.  Good  drainage  and  a 
reasonably  fertile  soil  are  essential  to  its  successful  growth; 
it  does  not  ordinarily  do  well  on  heavy  clays  nor  on  light, 
sandy  lands.  It  is  extensively  grown  on  soils  of  a  volcanic 
origin  in  the  Northwest.  Barley  grows  better  on  alkali 
soils  than  any  of  the  other  small  grains,  and  is  sometimes  used 
to  reduce  the  quantity  of  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  before  sow- 


220  FIELD  CROPS 

ing  to  oats,  alfalfa,  or  some  other  crop  which  is  less  resistant 
to  the  injurious  effects  of  these  salts. 

263.  Fertilizers  and  Manures.    The  best  fertilizer  for 
barley  is  barnyard  manure,  particularly  if  this  is  applied  to 
some  previous  crop  or  is  well  rotted.    Barley  can  be  grown 
successfully  on  richer  land  than  oats,  but  heavy  fertilization 
is  apt  to  cause  a  rank  growth  of  straw  with  a  tendency  to 
lodge.    As  the  roots  of  this  crop  do  not  penetrate. as  deeply 
as  those  of  oats  or  wheat,  the  surface  soil  should  contain  an 
abundance  of  plant  food.    The  yield  of  barley  may  be 
increased  by  the  use  of  green  manure  crops,  such  as  cow- 
peas,  field  peas,  and  the  like,  which  add  greatly  to  the 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  increasing  the  water-holding 
capacity  and  the  supply  of  readily  available  plant  food. 
On  poor  soils  where  neither  barnyard  nor  green  manures  are 
available,  beneficial  results  will  be  obtained  from  the  use  of 
commercial    fertilizers.     The    many    feeding    roots    which 
barley  throws  out  near  the  surface  enable  it  to  use  com- 
mercial fertilizers  quickly  and  to  good  advantage.    The 
proper  fertilizers  to  use  depend  largely  on  the  soil  to  which 
they  are  applied.     Phosphorus  and  potash  are  usually  more 
necessary  than  nitrogen  for  the  highest  yields  of  barley. 

264.  Preparation  of  the  Land.    A  well  prepared  seed  bed 
is  essential  to  the  best  growth  of  this  crop.     Fall  plowing  is 
desirable  wherever  possible,   for  fall-plowed  land  usually 
holds  moisture  better  the  following  spring  and  can  be  put 
in  shape  for  seeding  at  an  earlier  date  than  spring  plowing. 
Sowing  barley  on  land  that  has  been  disked  and  not  plowed 
is  fairly  successful  when  a  cultivated  crop  was  grown  on  the 
land  the  previous  year,  but  this  method  is  not  so  generally 
followed  as  with  oats,  while  the  results  which  are  obtained 
are  not  usually  as  good.     For  winter  barley,  plowing  should 
be  done  some  weeks  previous  to  seeding,  in  order  to  allow 


SOWING  BARLEY  221 

the  ground  to  become  thoroughly  settled.  Where  winter 
barley  follows  cowpeas  cut  for  hay,  a  good  seed  bed  can  be 
prepared  by  disking  and  harrowing  without  plowing.  The 
essential  thing  is  to  have  the  surface  soil  fine  and  mellow 
and  the  subsoil  firm. 

265.  Preparing  the  Seed  for  Sowing.    Thorough  grad- 
ing and  cleaning  of  the  seed  is  particularly  essential  to  success 


H  *  t  HI 


M  I'M  Ml 


i  M  i  «  I  * 


Fig.  75.     Barley  grains;  upper  row,  six-rowed  hulled;   center  row,  two-rowed 
hulled;  lower  row,  hull-less  or  naked. 

in  barley  culture.  This  is  more  necessary  with  the  six- 
rowed  varieties  than  with  the  two-rowed,  since  the  lateral 
grains  of  the  six-rowed  are  often  much  smaller  than  the 
median  ones  and  are  not  fully  developed.  Only  the  largest 
and  plumpest  seed  should  be  sown,  in  order  to  obtain  quick 
germination,  strong  growth,  and  an  even  stand.  Even- 


222  FIELD  CROPS 

ness  in  ripening  is  particularly  essential  to  produce  market 
barley  of  uniform  quality,  and  carefully  graded  seed  is  a 
means  toward  this  end.  Freedom  from  weed  seeds  is  also 
very  desirable,  for  weeds  in  the  crop  retard  its  growth,  make 
it  more  difficult  to  cure  properly,  and  injure  its  market  value. 
•  The  formaldehyde  treatment  recommended  for  the 
covered  smut  (bunt)  of  wheat  and  for  oat  smut  (Sec.  205) 
is  effective  in  controlling  covered  smut  of  barley.  Loose 
smut  of  barley  is  not  killed  by  formaldehyde,  but  can  be  kept 
in  check  by  the  hot  water  treatment  described  for  the  loose 
smut  of  wheat  (Sec.  205). 

266.  Sowing  the  Seed.    Barley  is  usually  sown  with  the 
grain  drill  at  the  rate  of  from  6  to  8  pecks  to  the  acre.     In 
the  drier  sections,  the  best  quantity  to  sow  may  be  as  low  as 
4  pecks.     Broadcast  seeding  usually  gives  much  lower  yields 
than  drilling,  and  is  notf*  to  be*  recommended  where  it  is 
possible  to  use  the  drill.     Hull-less  barley  is  sown  at  the  rate 
of  from  4  to  6  pecks  to  the  acre.     The  usual  date  of  seeding 
is  slightly  later  than  for  oats,  varying  from  the  latter  part  of 
March  and  the  first  week  of  April  in  Kansas,  through,  the 
second  and  third  weeks  of  April  in  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and 
Illinois,  and  extending  to  the  last  week  of  April  and  the 
first  half  of  May  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  the  Dakotas. 
Winter  barley  is  usually  sown  in  September  or  early  October. 
The  proper  depth  for  seeding  varies  somewhat  with  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil,  but  is  about  2  or  3  inches. 

267.  Harrowing.    Barley,  like  the  other  small  grains,  is 
seldom  cultivated  in  any  way.     Beneficial  results  are  some- 
times obtained  from  cultivating  drilled  barley  with  the  harT 
row  or  the  weeder,  running  these  tools  parallel  to  the  drill 
rows.     This  serves  to  break  the  crust  which  is  likely  to  form 
on  the  surface,  lessens  evaporation,  and  helps  to  keep  down 


HARVESTING  OF  BARLEY  223 

weeds.    Harrowing  is  especially  beneficial  in  dry  seasons 
or  in  sections  of  slight  rainfall. 

268.  Irrigation.    A  large  part  of  the  barley  produced  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  states  is  irrigated.    The  number  of 
irrigations  and  the  depth  of  water  to  be  applied  varies  with 
different  soils  and  seasons;  but  best  results  are  usually 
obtained  from  two  irrigations,  the  first  about  the  time  the 
heads  begin  to  show,  and  the  second  when  the  grain  is  filling. 
The  total  depth  of  water  applied  usually  does  not  exceed  1 
foot,  though  more  may  be  necessary  in  sections  where  the 
rainfall  is  particularly  deficient. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP 

269.  Cutting  and  Shocking.    As  the  appearance  of  the 
grain  largely  governs  the  market  value  of  barley,  it  should 
be  carefully  harvested  and  stored.     The  proper  time  to  cut 
this  crop  is  when  the  grain  is  in  the  hard  dough  stage.     If  cut 
earlier,  the  quality  is  injured  by  shrinking,  while  if  cut  later, 
part  of  the  crop  will  be  lost  from  shattering.     The  usual 
method  of  cutting  is  with  the  binder,  though  the  header  and 
the  combined  harvester   are  sometimes  used  in  the   dry 
sections  of  the  Pacific  and  Rocky  Mountain  states.     After 
the  bundles  have  dried  out  somewhat,  they  should  be  set  up 
in  good  shocks  and  carefully  capped  to  protect  as  much  of 
the  grain  as  possible  from  injury  by  bad  weather.     Long 
shocks  are  somewhat  preferable  to  round  ones,  as  they  allow 
better  circulation  of  air.     After  the  grain  is  cured  in  the 
shock,  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks  after  cutting,  it  should  be 
stacked  until  thrashing  time.     The  harvesting  of  spring- 
sown  barley  begins  in  Kansas  and  other  states  similarly 
located  about  July  1,  and  is  general  in  Wisconsin  and  Minne- 
sota about  August  1. 


224  FIELD  CROPS 

270.  Thrashing.    Thrashing  barley  from  the  shock  is  a 
risky  method,  for  the  grain  is  very  likely  to  be  injured  by  the 
weather  before  it  is  thrashed.    When  grain  of  the  best  quality 
is  wanted  for  market,  it  is  advisable  to  stack  and  thrash  the 
cap  bundles  separate  from  the  remainder  of  the  crop.    The 
discolored  grain  in  these  bundles  can  then  be  used  for  feed 
or  can  be  sold  by  itself  without  injuring  the  market  value  of 
the  entire  crop.     In  sections  where  there  is  no  danger  of 
rain  during  the  harvest  season,  thrashing  from  the  shock 
is  the  common  practice.    Cracking  the  grain  in  the  thrasher 
should  be  guarded  against,  as  cracked  kernels  lower  the  mar- 
ket value.    Special  care  should  be  given  to  the  work  of 
separation  in  thrashing,  so  as  to  remove  as  much  of  the  dirt 
and  weed  seeds  as  possible. 

271.  Storing  the  Grain.    Damp,  musty  bins  should  be 
avoided  in  storing  barley,  for  odor  and  appearance  are 
important  factors  in  the  market  value  of  the  grain.     If  the 
grain  is  damp  when  thrashed  or  becomes  damp  in  the  bin, 
it  should  be  shoveled  over  several  times  in  order  to  dry  it  out. 
Where  there  is  danger  of  injury  from  grain  moths  or  other 
insects,  tight  bins  which  can  be  fumigated  should  be  pro- 
vided. 

MARKETING  AND  RETURNS 

272.  Marketing  and  Market  Grades.    A  considerable 
part,  probably  as  much  as  two-thirds,  of  the  barley  crop  goes 
to  market.    The  market  grades  of  this  grain  are  based  very 
largely  on  color,  uniformity,  appearance,  and  odor,  and  on 
the    strength    and    uniformity    of   germination.    Material 
differences  in  price  are  made  between  the  grades,  and  the 
farmer  is  usually  well  paid  for  care  in  handling  the  grain 
from  the  time  it  is  harvested  till  it  is  delivered  to  the  ele- 
vator.   According  to  the -official  classification,  the  market 


PRICES  OF  BARLEY  225 

grades  of  barley  are  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  No.  1  feed,  and 
rejected.  No.  1  barley  "shall  be  sound,  plump,  bright, 
clean,  and  free  from  other  grain,  not  scoured  nor  clipped,  and 
shall  weigh  not  less  than  48  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel." 
The  other  grades  are  relatively  lower  in  quality  and  weight 
per  bushel.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  there  are  four  special 
classes,  with  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  in  each,  based  on  the 
variety  of  which  the  sample  is  composed,  either  wholly  or  in 
part.  These  are  Bay  Brewing  and  Bay  Brewing  mixed, 
Chevalier  and  Chevalier  mixed. 

273.  Exports    and   Imports.    The    average    exports    of 
barley  from  the  United  States  for  the  ten  years  from  1899 
to  1908  were  10,554,000  bushels  out  of  a  crop  slightly  below 
150,000,000  bushels.    During  the  same  period,  the  imports 
amounted  to  only  90,000  bushels  annually.    The  exports 
went  to  England,  Australia,  and  other  countries,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  malt;  the  imports  were  of  seed  barley  and  high- 
grade  brewing  barley,  mostly  from  Canada. 

274.  Prices  and  Acre  Value.    The  mean  farm  price  of 
barley  on  December  1   for  the  entire  United  States  for  the 
ten  years  from  1902  to  1911  was  53.6  cents.    In  California, 
the  state  of  largest  production,  it  was  66.3  cents,  while  in 
Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  which  rank  next  in  order  of  pro- 
duction, the  mean  price  per  bushel  was  only  49.2  and  57.5 
cents,  respectively.    The  high  price  in  California  is  largely 
due  to  the  scarcity  of  other  grain,  while  the  lower  price  in  the 
other  states  mentioned  is  due  to  the  plentiful  supply  of 
wheat,  oats,  and  corn  which  is  there  produced. 

The  mean  value  of  the  grain  from  an  acre  of  barley  for 
the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911  was  $13.25  for  the  entire 
United  States.  For  California,  $17.02  was  the  acre  value; 
for  Minnesota,  $11.61;  and  for  Wisconsin,  $15.95.  The 
highest  acre  value  is  that  recorded  for  Arizona,  $29.67; 

10 


226  FIELD  CROPS 

and  the  lowest,  that  for  Kansas,  $7.39.  In  general,  the 
higher  acre  values  are  found  in  the  New  England,  Rocky 
Mountain,  and  Pacific  states,  and  the  lower  in  the  Central 
and  Southern  states. 

275.  Cost  of  Production.    The  reports  of  about  two 
hundred   correspondents  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,   as 
reported  in  the  Crop  Reporter  for  October,  1911,  show  that 
the  average  cost  of  producing  an  acre  qf  barley  in  1909  in 
the  United  States  was  $10.05,  divided  as  follows:  preparing 
ground,  $1.84;  seed,  $1.14;  sowing,  46  cents;  harvesting, 
$1.28;  preparing  for  market,  $1.50;  rental  value  of  land, 
$3.17;  other  items,  66  cents.    As  the  average  value  of  an 
acre  of  barley  that  year  was  $12.15,  the  crop  shows  a  net 
return  of  $2.10  an  acre  for  the  grain  alone.     In  California, 
the  average  cost  was  $10.46,  with  a  value  of  $16.35;  Minne- 
sota, $9.43,  value  $10.43;  and  Wisconsin,  $12.49,  value  $15.18. 
The  cost  of  a  bushel  of  grain  averaged  36.4  cents  for  the 
entire  United  States,  31.7  cents  for  California,  37.7  cents  for 
Minnesota,  and  41.6  cents  for  Wisconsin. 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

276.  Insect    Enemies.    The    insects    which    are    most 
troublesome  in  growing  barley  are  the  chinch  bug,  spring 
grain  aphis,  and  Hessian  fly.    A  discussion  of  these  insects 
has  already  been  given  (Sec.  206). 

The  most  destructive  insects  in  stored  barley  are  the 
grain  weevil  and  the  Angoumois  grain  moth.  The  most 
effective  way  of  preventing  damage  from  weevils  and  moths 
is  to  store  the  grain  in  tight  bins  and  fumigate  occasionally 
with  carbon  bisulfid. 

277.  Diseases.    The  most  injurious  diseases  of  barley 
are  the  rusts  and  smuts.     The  two  kinds  of  rust  and  two 


BARLEY  IN  THE  ROTATION 


227 


kinds  of  smut  on  barley  are  quite  similar  to  the  correspond- 
ing diseases  on  wheat.  Covered  smut  may  be  destroyed 
by  treating  with  the  formaldehyde  solution  and  loose  smut 

by  the  hot  water  treat-   _  t 

ment  (Sec.  205).  These 
diseases  are  frequently 
quite  destructive,  and  the 
annual  production  of  bar- 
ley is  materially  decreased 
by  loss  from  smut. 

Leaf  rust  and  stem 
rust  also  do  considerable 
damage,  particularly  in 
seasons  favorable  to  their 
development.  The  plant- 
ing of  early-maturing 
varieties  which  ripen  be- 
fore rust  ordinarily  be- 
comes prevalent,  and  the 
use  of  well-drained  land 
for  producing  this  crop 
are  recommended  as  pre- 
ventives of  rust  injury. 
Powdery  mildew  some- 
times occurs  on  barley, 
but  it  usually  does  little 
damage. 


1       I 


Fig.  76.  Smutted  heads  of  barley.  The 
three  upper  ones,  covered  smut;  the  two 
lower,  loose  smut. 


RELATION  TO  OTHER  CROPS 

278.  Place  in  the  Rotation.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley 
states,  barley  occupies  about  the  same  place  in  the  rotation 
as  oats;  i.  e.,  it  usually  follows  corn  and  precedes  the  grass 


228  FIELD  CROPS 

crop.  As  with  other  grain  crops,  the  heaviest  yields  are 
usually  obtained  when  barley  is  grown  after  corn,  potatoes, 
or  some  other  cultivated  crop.  Excellent  results  are  also 
obtained  when  it  follows  a  leguminous  crop,  such  as  field 
peas  in  the  North  and  cowpeas  in  the  South.  Barley  yields 
better  after  corn  than  after  oats,  when  these  three  crops  are 
grown  in  a  rotation. 

279.  Use  as  a  Nurse  and  Smother  Crop.    On  account 
of  its  early  maturity  and  the  fact  that  it  draws  rather  lightly 
on  the  soil  moisture,  barley  is  an  excellent  nurse  crop  to  use 
when  seeding  down  to  grass  or  clover.    Its  early  maturity 
also  makes  it  of  value  in  clearing  weedy  land,  since  it  can  be 
cut  before  many  of  the  weeds  mature  their  seeds.     It  is  of 
less  value  as  a  smother  crop  than  oats,  because  it  makes  less 
shade. 

280.  Sowing  with  Other  Grains.    As  noted  elsewhere 
(Sec.  247),  barley  and  oats  are  frequently  sown  together  for 
the  production  of  feed  grain.    The  largest  yields  are  obtained 
when  about  1  bushel  of  each  grain  is  sown  to  the  acre,  using 
a  medium  late  variety  of  barley  and  an  early  variety  of  oats, 
so  that  the  two  grains  will  ripen  together.    The  yields  from 
these  grain  mixtures,  which  are  quite  commonly  grown  in 
Ontario  and  other  portions  of  Canada  and  to  a  lesser  extent 
in  the  northern  United  States,  are  larger  than  those  from 
either  crop  when  sown  alone. 

THE  USES  OF  BARLEY 

281.  The  Manufacture  of  Malt.    About  one-half  of  the 
barley  crop  of  the  United  States  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  malt,  which  is  largely  used  in  the  production  of  beer  and 
other  malt  liquors.    Malt  is  produced  by  extracting  the 


THE  USES  OF  BARLEY  229 

starch  from  the  grain  after  it  has  been  changed  in  form  by  the 
germination  process,  the  grain  being  placed  in  vats  or  tanks 
where  it  is  moistened  and  heated  sufficiently  to  induce  rapid 
germination.  Oats  and  wheat  are  also  used  to  produce 
malt,  but  barley  is  much  preferred  by  maltsters  and  is  most 
largely  used.  Brewing  or  malting  barley  should  be  clean 
and  bright  in  color,  free  from  other  grains,  weed  seeds,  and 
broken  grains,  and  of  high  germinating  power.  Broken 
grains  or  those  which  will  not  germinate  are  objectionable 
because  they  mold  in  the  germinating  tanks  and  the  mold  is 
communicated  to  the  healthy  grains. 

282.  Feeding  to  Stock.    Barley  is  quite  largely  used  for 
feeding  to  stock,  either  whole  or  ground  into  meal.     In  the 
Mississippi  Valley  it  is  most  largely  used  for  feeding  to  hogs, 
as  it  produces  pork  of  very  high  quality.     It  is  also  useful 
for  fattening  sheep  and  for  feeding  to  dairy  cows  and  poultry. 
It  is  not  often  fed  to  horses  in  this  section,  but  in  the  Pacific 
states  it  is  a  standard  feed  for  this  class  of  animals.    The 
feeding  value  of  barley  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  corn. 

283.  Use  as  Human  Food.    This  grain  is  little  used  as 
human  food  in  the  United  States,  though  in  some  portions 
of  Europe  it  is  commonly  made  into  bread.     In  America, 
it  is  principally  used  as  pearl  barley  for  soups  and  as  a  cereal 
breakfast  food.    Pearl  barley  is  the  kernel  from  which  the 
hull  has  been  removed. 

284.  Use  of  the  By-Products.    Barley  straw,  the  by- 
product of  grain  production,  is  generally  fed  to  animals  or 
used  as  bedding.    As  most  of  the  barley  which  is  produced 
in  this  country  is  bearded  and  these  beards  can  not  be 
separated  from  the  straw,  barley  straw  is  less  palatable  than 
that  of  oats  or  beardless  wheat.     It  is  also  less  nutritious 


230  FIELD  CROPS 

than  wheat  straw.  As  bedding,  it  is  said  to  be  slightly 
better  as  an  absorbent  of  liquids  than  oat  straw.  It  is  also 
a  little  higher  in  fertilizing  value  than  oat  straw. 

The  by-products  of  the  malting  industry,  malt  sprouts 
and  brewers'  grains,  are  largely  used  for  stock  feed  in  the 
vicinity  of  malt-houses,  either  in  the  wet  or  the  dried  state. 
The  dried  sprouts  and  brewers'  grains  are  more  pleasant 
to  handle,  and  are  generally  better  for  feeding.  Malt 
sprouts  are  the  sprouts  produced  during  germination,  which 
are  broken  off  before  the  soluble  starch  compounds  are 
extracted.  They  are  high  in  protein  and  are  a  very  good 
feed,  particularly  for  dairy  cows.  Brewers'  grains  are  the 
barley  or  other  grains  from  which  the  soluble  starch  has  been 
extracted.  Since  they  contain  a  large  part  of  the  protein 
that  was  in  the  original  grain,  they  are  high  in  feeding  value. 
Like  malt  sprouts,  they  are  largely  used  for  feeding  to  dairy 
cows.  Both  these  feeds  can  usually  be  purchased  at  reason- 
able prices,  and  can  be  used  with  profit  where  they  are  readily 
obtainable. 

285.  Barley  for  Hay  and  Pasture.  Barley  is  not  often 
used  as  a  hay  crop  except  in  the  West  and  South.  The 
bearded  kinds  should  be  cut  while  the  beards  are  still  soft, 
or  they  will  cause  injury  to  the  mouths  of  animals  to  which 
the  hay  is  fed.  The  beardless  varieties  are  to  be  preferred 
for  hay  production  in  the  region  to  which  they  are  adapted. 
Beardless  barley  is  now  being  grown  to  some  extent  in  the 
South  as  a  hay  and  pasture  crop,  though  conditions  are  not 
favorable  for  the  production  of  grain.  Barley  hay  is  high 
in  feeding  value,  and  if  cut  at  the  right  stage,  is  relished  by 
stock.  Winter  barley  makes  excellent  pasture  for  stock  of 
all  kinds  both  in  the  fall  and  the  spring  within  the  region  to 


JUDGING  BARLEY  231 

which  it  is  adapted.  Spring  barley  also  produces  nutritious 
early  spring  pasture,  and  is  sometimes  sown  for  this  purpose, 
particularly  for  hogs  and  sheep. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  CROP 

286.  Opportunities   for   Improvement.    Barley   can   be 
improved  by   increasing  the  yield,    by  increasing   the  size 
and  plumpness  of  the  individual  grains,  and  in  other  ways. 
For  malting,  a  low  protein  content  and  a  high  proportion  of 
starch  are  desired;  while  for  feeding,  a  high  protein  content 
is  wanted.    It  is  possible  to  produce  strains  by  selection 
which  are  relatively  high  or  low  in  protein,  but  this  requires 
much  careful  work  and  can  hardly  be  undertaken  except  by 
professional  plant  breeders. 

287.  Methods  of  Improvement.    The  methods  of  improv- 
ing barley  are  not  different  from  those  practiced  with  wheat 
(Sec.  215)  and  oats  (Sec.  254) .    Grading  the  grain  and  sowing 
only  the  heaviest  and  plumpest  kernels  will   eventually 
improve  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  crop.    The  selection 
of  good  heads  from  the  field,  using  the  seeds  from  them  to  sow 
a  seed  plot  from  which  all  plants  not  of  uniform  type  are 
removed  before  harvest,  and  increasing  this  seed  until  enough 
is  produced  to  plant  the  main  crop,  will  materially  improve 
the  quality,  yield,  and  uniformity  of  the  crop.    New  varie- 
ties may  be  produced  by  the  selection  of  specially  good  indi- 
vidual plants  and  by  hybridization. 

288.  Judging.    The  excellence  of  a  sample  of  barley  is 
determined  largely  on  its  uniformity,  its  freedom  from  broken 
grains,  weed  seeds  and  other  foreign  matter,  its  condition, 
and  its  weight  per  bushel.     Germination  is  also  a  factor 
which  is  usually  considered. 


232  FIELD  CROPS 

The  following  score  card  is  used  by  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  University  of  Nebraska: 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  BARLEY 

UNIFORMITY 

Color 20  points 

Texture 20  points 

Size 10  points 

QUALITY 

Weight  per  bushel 15  points 

Injury  in  thrashing 10  points 

Sprouted,  bin-burnt,  decayed,  etc 15  points 

Foreign  matter 10  points 

Total 100  points 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Let  each  student  make  a  study  of  the  barley  plant  and  write  a 
description  of  it.     If  several  widely  different  varieties  can  be  used  for 
this  work,  and  their  differences  and  similarities  brought  out,  the  value 
of  the  study  will  be  greatly  increased. 

2.  Make  studies  of  samples  of  thrashed  barley  to  determine  whether 
they  are  two-rowed  or  six-rowed.     The  six-rowed  samples  will  contain 
approximately  twice  as  many  compressed  or  twisted  grains  as  fully 
developed  ones,  due  to  the  manner  in  which  the  lateral  grains  in  the 
spikelets  press  against  one  another  (See  Fig.  71).    Pure  samples  of  two- 
rowed  barley  will  contain  none  of  these  compressed  grains.     Mix 
together  lots  of  two-rowed  and  six-rowed  barley  which  are  similar  in 
appearance  and  let  the  class  determine  about  what  proportion  of  each 
was  used  in  the  mixture. 

3.  Make  germination  tests  of  samples  of  barley.     If  desired,  the 
strength  of  germination  of  the  median  and  lateral  grains  of  six-rowed 
barley  may  be  compared. 

4.  Examine  samples  of  barley  and  determine  what  percentage  is 
pure  grain  and  what  trash  and  weed  seeds. 

5.  Test  planting  at  different  depths,  noting  differences  in  germi- 
nation and  growth. 

6.  Devote  considerable  time  to  practice  in  scoring  and  judging 
samples  of  barley. 


REFERENCES  ON  BARLEY  233 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

427.  Barley  Culture  in  the  Southern  States. 

443.  Barley:  Growing  the  Crop. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  5,  Barley  Culture  in  the  Northern 

Great  Plains. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  62,  The  Separation  of  Seed  Barley 

by  the  Gravity  Method. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  202-206. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  105-107. 
Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  318-344. 
Wilcox  and  Smith's  Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  pp.  7-10. 


CHAPTER  VII 
RYE 

289.  Origin  and  Description.     Rye  has  been  cultivated 
only  in  comparatively  recent  times,  for  it  was  not  known 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.     It  probably  grew  origi- 
nally in  western  Asia  and  southeastern  Europe,  since  several 
species  of  wild  rye,  any  one  of  which  may  be  the  parent  of 
the  cultivated  type,  are  still  found  there.     Rye  is  quite 
closely  related  to  wheat,  and  its  manner  of  growth  is  much 
the  same.     The  straw  is  longer  and  more  wiry,  and  the  heads 
are  more  slender  and  are  always  bearded.    Unlike  wheat  and 
the  other  small  grains,   rye   cross-fertilizes  freely,   which 
probably  accounts  for  the  fact  that  so  few  distinct  varieties 
have  been  developed.     It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to 
maintain  a  pure  stock  of  wheat,  oats,  or  barley  and  so  to 
develop  in  time  a  new  variety  from  any  particularly  good 
plant.     There  is  no  danger  of  mixing  with  other  varieties 
if  proper  care  is  used  in  sowing,  harvesting,  and  thrashing. 
Rye,  however,  may  become  mixed  in  the  field  by  pollen 
carried  from  other  plants  by  the  wind  or  by  insects,  and  hence 
it  is  quite  difficult  to  build  up  a  pure  strain.     Only  a  few 
varieties  are  recognized  even  by  seedsmen,  and  farmers  ordi- 
narily grow  simply  " winter  rye"  or  " spring  rye."     Most  of 
the  rye  grown  in  this  country  is  sown  in  the  fall,  for  winter  rye 
is  our  hardiest  winter  grain  and  there  are  few  localities  where 
it  does  not  succeed. 

290.  Importance  of  the  Crop.    The  world  production  of 
rye  is  greater  than  that  of  barley,  but  less  than  that  of  wheat, 
corn,  oats,  or  rice.     Almost  half  of  the  world's  crop  of  1,600,- 
000,000  bushels  is  grown  in  European  Russia,  and  about 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  .RYE 


235 


one-quarter  in  Germany.  In  these  two  countries  and  in 
Sweden  and  Norway,  rye  is  quite  generally  ground  into  flour 
and  made  into  bread.  In  fact,  rye  bread  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  diet 
there,  particularly  among 
the  poorer  classes.  Other 
countries  where  large 
quantities  of  rye  are 
grown  are  Austria- 
Hungary,  with  an  aver- 
age annual  production  of 
154,000,000  bushels  for 
the  five  years  from  1906 
to  1910,  and  France  with 
52,000,000  bushels.  The 
average  production  of  the 
United  States  for  this 
period  was  32,454,000 
bushels. 

291.  Production  in  the 
United  States.  Rye  is 
exceeded  in  value  by 
ten  of  our  field  crops, 
ranking  next  below  flax. 
The  average  area  devoted 
to  the  production  of  rye 
for  the  ten  years  from 
1902  to  1911  was  1,979,- 
000  acres,  with  a  mean 

yield  of  15.9  bushels  to  the  acre  and  a  total  average  pro- 
duction of  31,305,000  bushels,  valued  at  $20,910,000.  The 
table  which  follows  shows  the  leading  states  in  the  produc- 
tion of  rye. 


236  •    FIELD  CROPS 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  rye  crop  is  produced  in  a  few  states,  the  first  five 
mentioned  producing  60  per  cent  of  the  total  crop.  The 
remainder  of  the  crop  is  scattered  over  a  number  of 
states,  most  of  which  are  northern.  The  highest  average 
production  to  the  acre  is  that  recorded  in  Montana,  21.3 
bushels.  Idaho,  Wyoming,  and  Washington  all  show 
high  acre  yields,  but  none  of  these  states  is  an  important 
producer  of  this  crop.  Of  the  states  where  rye  is  important, 
the  highest  yields  are  those  of  Minnesota,  18.5  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  Iowa,  17.5  bushels.  The  highest  value  to  the  acre 
is  reported  from  Montana,  $14.61,  and  the  lowest  from  Kan- 


23.05% 

Fig.  78.    The  percentage  of  the  rye  crop  of  the  United  States  grown  in  the 
'states  of  largest  production,  1902-1911. 

sas,  $8.11.     The  value  of  an  acre  of  rye  in  Pennsylvania  is 
$11.13,  and  in  Wisconsin  $11.02. 

292.  Growing  the  Crop.  Rye  will  grow  on  rather  poorer 
soils  than  the  other  cereals,  and  is  frequently  planted  on 
land  which  is  low  in  fertility  or  which  is  not  in  good  condi- 
tion to  produce  crops,  such  as  that  which  is  just  being  brought 
into  cultivation.  Materially  increased  yields  are  obtained  by 
growing  this  crop  on  good  soil  and  in  a  well  prepared  seed 
bed.  The  best  yields  are  obtained  from  loam  soils  which 
are  quite  fertile.  The  seed  bed  for  winter  rye  should  be  pre- 
pared by  plowing  some  time  previous  to  sowing,  as  early 
as  August  1,  if  it  is  possible  to  remove  the  previous  crop  by 


THE  CULTURE  OF  RYE  237 

that  time.  The  land  should  then  be  disked  and  harrowed 
to  make  it  fine  and  mellow,  and  to  prevent  it  from  drying  out. 
The  field  should  be  harrowed  often  enough  during  the  interval 
between  plowing  and  seeding  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds. 
Sowing  with  the  grain  drill  is  preferable  to  broadcast  seeding. 
The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is  from  5  to  6  pecks  to  the  acre, 
though  as  much  as  8  pecks  may  be  sown  when  winter  pasture 
is  desired. 

The  time  of  seeding  depends  on  the  locality  and  the  use 
which  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop.  If  intended  for  fall  pasture, 
the  seed  may  be  sown  early  in  August  in  the  Northern  states, 
or  during  the  latter  part  of  August  or  early  in  September 
farther  south.  If  grown  for  grain  alone,  September  is  the 
usual  month  for  seecling  in  the  North,  and  October  in  the 
South.  Winter  rye  may  be  sown  later  than  winter  wheat, 
and  is  not  usually  sown  until  after  wheat  seeding  is  finished. 
The  methods  of  harvesting  and  thrashing  are  not  different 
from  those  in  use  with  the  other  grains. 

293.  Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies.  The  most  common 
disease  of  rye  is  ergot,  in  which  the  grains  are  replaced  by 
long  black  or  purplish  masses  of  spores.  This  disease 
occurs  on  many  of  the  wild  and  cultivated  grasses  and  occa- 
sionally on  the  other  small  grains,  but  of  our  cultivated 
crops  it  is  most  frequent  on  rye.  The  spores  of  this  parasite 
gain  entrance  into  the  ovule  when  it  first  begins  to  develop 
and  the  growth  of  the  fungus  gradually  replaces  that  of  the 
ovule.  By  the  time  the  grain  matures,  the  spore-mass  of 
ergot  has  developed  into  a  hard,  elongated,  slightly  curved 
body  from  ^  to  1J/2  inches  long.  The  fungus  reduces  the 
yield  of  grain  to  some  extent,  but  it  is  most  serious  when  it 
occurs  in  considerable  quantity  and  causes  poisoning  and 
other  serious  disorders  of  stock  which  eat  it.  Ergot  is  used 
to  some  extent  in  medicine.  The  best  preventive  measures 


238 


FIELD  CROPS 


are  thorough  cleaning  of  the  seed  and  rotation  of  crops  so 
as  to  avoid  sowing  rye  on  the  same  land  two  years  in  succes- 
sion. No  other  disease  of  rye  is  serious,  though  rust  and 
smut  sometimes  occur.  This  crop  is  less  seriously  affected 
by  insect  pests  than  wheat,  and  preventive  measures  against 
insect  attacks  are  seldom  necessary. 

294.  Uses  of  the  Rye  Grain.     In  the  United  States,  only 
a  small  portion  of  the  rye  crop  is  used  as  human  food.     The 


Fig.  79.     A  field  of  rye  ready  for  harvest. 

usual  method  is  to  grind  the  grain  into  flour  and  make  it  into 
bread,  though  a  few  cereal  breakfast  foods  are  made  wholly 
or  in  part  from  this  grain.  In  Russia  and  various  portions 
of  northern  Europe,  rye  bread  is  one  of  the  chief  foods  of  the 
people.  The  bread  made  from  rye  flour  is  close  in  texture 
and  dark  in  color.  A  large  part  of  the  rye  crop  in  America 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages, 
the  process  being  somewhat  similar  to  that  employed  in  the 


THE  USE 8  OF  RYE  239 

manufacture  of  these  liquors  from  corn.  The  grain  is  also 
excellent  for  feeding  to  stock,  though  best  results  are  usually 
obtained  when  rye  is  fed  in  combination  with  other  grains. 
The  best  use  of  the  grain  can  be  made  when  it  is  fed  to  horses 
or  hogs.  For  feeding  to  hogs  it  should  be  combined  with 
barley,  corn,  or  shorts,  while  it  is  best  for  horses  when  fed 
with  oats. 

295.  Uses  of  the  Green  Plant.  The  green  plant  is  an 
important  item  of  stock  food,  both  as  late  fall  and  early 
spring  pasture  and  as  a  crop  for  green  feed.  Rye  which  is 
sown  in  August  or  early  in  September  will  furnish  con- 
siderable pasturage  during  the  fall  months,  and  can  be  pas- 
tured quite  closely  without  danger  of  winter  killing.  The 
plants  from  this  early  sowing  should  be  pastured  closely 
enough  to  prevent  the  formation  of  heads  in  the  fall.  Rye 
also  furnishes  excellent  pasture  in  early  spring,  and  may  be 
pastured  for  two  or  three  weeks  at  that  time,  without  seri- 
ously reducing  the  yield  of  grain.  For  feeding  green  to 
stock,  the  plants  should  be  cut  about  the  time  they  come  into 
head,  as  the  straw  becomes  stiff  and  wiry  and  is  unpalatable 
if  allowed  to  become  more  mature. 

Rye  is  frequently  plowed  under  as  green  manure  to  add 
humus  to  the  land.  It  makes  a  quick  growth  in  the  spring 
and  produces  a  large  quantity  of  material  early  enough  so 
that  it  can  be  plowed  down  and  another  crop  planted  on  the 
land  the  same  season.  In  the  South,  rye  makes  a  good 
winter  cover,  as  it  may  be  sown  later  than  most  other  crops, 
it  never  winter  kills,  and  it  begins  to  grow  as  soon  as  the 
first  warm  days  come.  While  it  is  excellent  to  prevent  the 
soil  from  washing,  it  adds  little  to  the  fertility  of  the  land 
and  is  of  much  less  value  as  a  green  manure  crop  than  any  of 
the  legumes.  If  sown  with  winter  vetch  or  field  peas,  it  pro- 
vides a  support  and  increases  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter. 


240  FIELD  CROPS 

296.  Uses  of  the  Straw.  Rye  straw  is  of  little  value  for 
feeding,  but  its  stiff,  wiry  texture,  which  makes  it  distaste- 
ful to  stock,  makes  it  useful  for  various  other  purposes.  It  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  straw  articles,  such  as 
cheap  straw  hats,  strawboard,  and  paper,  and  for  the  stuffing 
of  horse  collars.  For  the  latter  purpose,  the  grain  is  flailed 
out  to  prevent  the  straw  from  being  broken,  though  thrash- 
ing machines  have  recently  been  devised  which  keep  the 
straw  straight,  and  these  may  be  substituted  for  the  flail. 
Rye  straw  is  also  much  in  favor  as  packing  material  for  trees 
and  other  nursery  stock,  and  as  bedding  for  live  stock. 
Breeders  of  fancy  horses  and  of  exhibition  stock  of  other 
kinds  often  pay  extra  prices  for  rye  straw  for  bedding. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  study  and  write  a  description  of  the  rye  plant,  as  has 
already  been  done  with  the  other  cereals. 

2.  If  it  is  possible  to  obtain  several  samples,  have  them  judged 
and  placed  according  to  their  relative  value. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  559-563. 

Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  209-213. 

Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  345-356. 

Wilcox  and  Smith's  Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  pp.  102-104. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FLAX 

HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION 

297.  Origin  and  History.     Flax,  like  wheat,  has  been 
grown  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  records.     Its 
earlier  cultivation  was  for  the  production  of  fiber,  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth  (linen)  from  flax  fiber  being  an  art  which  was 
practiced  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Hindus.    The  use 
of  the  seed  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  and  for  feeding  to  stock 
seems  to  have  been  of  comparatively  recent  development. 
Flax  still  grows  wild  in  the  region  around  the  Black  Sea,  in 
what  is  now  Asiatic  Turkey.     While  it  is  quite  possible  that 
this  is  the  region  from  which  it  was  originally  obtained,  this 
plant  is  so  likely  to  run  wild  in  localities  where  it  is  culti- 
vated, and  to  maintain  itself  in  the  wild  state  for  years,  that 
it  is  equally  possible  that  it  may  have  been  brought  to  the 
Black  Sea  region  from  some  other  country.     In  fact,  flax 
is  quite  frequently  found  growing  wild  in  the  United  States, 
though  it  is  well  known  that  it  is  not  native.    The  cultiva- 
tion of  flax  was  carried  from  Egypt  and  western  Asia  into 
Europe,  and  from  Europe  it  was  introduced  at  an  early  date 
into  America.    The  ancient  peoples  of  central  Europe  culti- 
vated a  perennial  species,  but  this  was  later  replaced  by  the 
annual  species  from  western  Asia. 

298.  Botanical    Characters    and    Relationships.    Flax 
belongs  to  the  Linaceae,  or  flax  family,  the  typical  genus  and 
the  only  one  which  grows  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  being  Linum,  to  which  the  cultivated  flax  belongs. 
The  only  species  of  this  genus  which  is  cultivated  in  the  Uni- 


242 


FIELD  CROPS 


ted  States  is  Linum  usitatissimum,  though  two  other  species 
are  occasionally  cultivated  in  other  parts  of  the  world  and  a 
number  of  species  grow  wild  in  America  and  elsewhere. 

Our  common  flax  is  an  annual,  with  a  single  upright  stem 
and  a  long  taproot  with  few  small  branches.  The  number 
and  length  of  the  branches  of  the  stem  depend  largely  on  the 
thickness  of  seeding.  Plants  which  have  plenty  of  room  to 
develop  will  produce  numerous  branches,  while  those  that 


Fig.  80.     Field  of  flax  in  bloom. 

are  crowded  branch  little  or  not  at  all,  except  for  the  branches 
of  the  panicle.  The  flax  plant  grows  from  12  to  20  inches 
high,  the  length  of  straw  depending  on  the  variety,  the  soil, 
and  the  season.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  lanceolate,  from 
Yz  to  1J/2  inches  long.  The  flowers  are  produced  in  a  leafy 
terminal  panicle;  the  flower  parts  are  in  fives,  the  flowers 
themselves  being  about  ^  inch  across  and  of  a  light  blue 
color.  The  rounded  capsules  contain  eight  or  ten  seeds, 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  FLAX  243 

which  are  usually  light  brown  in  color;  they  are  flattened 
and  have  a  smooth,  shining  or  polished  surface.  The  length 
of  the  seeds  is  %  mch  or  slightly  less. 

The  stems  of  flax  are  made  up  of  three  layers,  the  bark, 
the  wood,  and  the  pith.  The  bark  is  composed  of  several 
layers,  of  which  the  most  important  from  an  economic  point 
of  view  is  the  bast  or  fiber  cells.  These  cells  are  only  about 
one-tenth  to  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long,  but  are  so  firmly 
fastened  together  that  fibers  of  the  entire  length  of  the  straw 
may  be  removed.  The  process  of  separating  these  fibers 
from  the  other  portions  of  the  stem  is  described  elsewhere. 
(Sec.  306). 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CROP 

299.  World  Production.  There  are  few  plants  which 
are  put  to  a  greater  variety  of  uses  than  flax.  The  fiber  from 
the  stem  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  many  articles,  from 
the  finest  linen  cloth  to  coarse  twine  and  bagging.  The  oil 
from  the  seeds  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paint,  varnishes, 
and  other  articles;  the  grain  from  which  the  oil  has  been 
removed  is  fed  to  stock.  The  mucilage-like  substance  which 
exudes  from  the  seedcoat  when  the  grain  is  dampened  is  made 
use  of  to  some  extent  in  medicine,  in  the  making  of  poultices 
and  for  other  purposes.  The  greater  portion  of  the  flax 
which  is  grown  in  this  country  is  producecj  for  the  seed, 
though  the  straw  is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture 
of  twine,  bagging,  and  upholstered  articles. 

Fiber  flax  is  produced  largely  in  Russia  and  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  Russia  furnishing  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  world's 
supply  of  about  1,730,000,000  pounds  annually.  Argentina 
is  now  the  leading  country  in  the  production  of  seed  flax, 
the  United  States  and  Russia  ranking  next  in  importance. 


244  FIELD  CROPS 

Argentina  produced  more  than  34  per  cent  of  the  entire 
world's  crop  of  flaxseed  in  the  five  years  from  1905  to  1909; 
the  United  States  slightly  more  than  26  per  cent;  European 
Russia,  20  per  cent;  and  British  India,  12^  per  cent.  The 
average  world  production  for  this  period  was  about  100,- 
000,000  bushels.  The  increase  in  flax  production  in  Argen- 
tina has  been  very  rapid  in  recent  years. 

300.  Production  in  the  United  States.  In  the  ten  years 
from  1902  to  1911,  as  shown  in  Table  XIII,  more  than  half 
of  the  flax  crop  of  the  United  States  was  produced  in  North 
Dakota,  the  average  area  devoted  to  flax  in  that  state  being 
1,465,000  acres,  and  the  average  production  12,289,000 
bushels.  Minnesota  produced  one-fifth,  and  South  Dakota 


MINN,  mmmmmmmmmmmm  19.97% 
S.DAK.  mmmmmmmmmmm  i&.5i°/o 

Fig.  81.     Percentage  of  the  total  flax  crop  of  the  Unted  States  produced  in  the 
three  leading  states,  and  in  all  others,  1902-1911. 

one-sixth  of  the  crop,  half  of  the  remainder  being  grown  in 
Montana  and  Kansas.  The  accompanying  diagram  shows 
graphically  the  portion  of  the  crop  produced  in  the  three 
leading  states.  The  production  of  flax  is  much  more  impor- 
tant in  North  Dakota  than  in  any  other  state,  9.74  per  cent 
of  the  improved  farm  area  being  devoted  to  the  crop,  as 
compared  with  8.67  per  cent  in  oats  and  5.42  per  cent  in 
barley.  Wheat  alone  is  more  important,  occupying  40.33 
per  cent  of  the  improved  farm  land  in  this  state.  In  annual 
value,  the  flax  crop  of  the  United  States  exceeds  rye  and 
rice,  ranking  next  to  barley.  The  average  annual  value  of 
the  crop  for  the  ten  years  was  $27,611,000.  The  standard 
weight  of  a  bushel  of  flax  is  56  pounds. 


SOILS  FOR  FLAX 


245 


Table  XIIL  Average  annual  acreage,  production,  and  farm  value 
of  the  flax  crop  oj  the  United  States  and  of  the  three  leading  states 
for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911,  inclusive. 


Area 

Mean  yield 
per  acre 

Production 

Farm  value 
Dec.  1. 

North  Dakota.  .. 
Minnesota  
South  Dakota.  .  . 
All  others  .... 

Acres 

1,465,000 
473,000 
452,000 
323,000 

Bushels 
8.44 

9.91 
8.99 
8.62 

Bushels 

12,289,000 
4,738,000 
3,919,000 
2,784,000 

Dollars 

13,948,000 
5,508.000 
4,386,000 
3,759,000 

The  United  States 

2,713,000 

8.81 

23,730,000 

27,601,000 

GROWING  THE  CROP 

301.  Soils  Adapted  to  Flax.     In  America,  flax  is  grown 
almost  entirely  in  newly  settled  districts,  and  is  quite  gener- 
ally the  first  crop  sown  after  the  breaking  of  prairie  sod. 
There  are  two  reasons  for  this  practice.    One  is  that  flax 
grows  better  than  almost  any  other  crop  on  tough  sod  and 
it  is  effective  in  subduing  new  land;  the  other  is  that  when 
flax  is  grown  for  several  years  in  any  section,  the  land 
becomes  "flax  sick"  and  fails  to  produce  a  profitable  crop. 
The  condition  known  as  flax  sickness  is  explained  elsewhere 
(Sec.  309).    The  crop  grows  best  in  a  rather  cool  climate 
and  on  soils  that  are  not  too  heavy.     Sandy  loams  are  better 
adapted  to  flax  than  are  clay  loams  or  heavy  clays.    The 
idea  is  very  common  among  farmers  that  flax  is  "hard  on  the 
land,"  but  the  failure  of  the  crop  when  it  is  grown  for  several 
successive  years  on  the  same  field  is  due  more  to  diseases 
than  to  the  removal  of  soil  fertility.    The  general  practice 
of  growing  flax  only  on  new  land  makes  the  use  of  fertilizers 
and  manures  practically  unnecessary. 

302.  Preparation  of  the  Land.    The  usual  method  of 
preparing  sod  land  for  flax  is  to  flat  break  it  in  the  fall  or  early 
in  the  spring,  running  the  plow  just  deep  enough  to  turn  the 


246  FIELD  CROPS 

sod  over.  It  may  be  cut  up  with  the  disk  harrow  in  the 
spring  if  the  breaking  was  done  the  preceding  summer  or 
fall,  setting  the  disks  quite  straight  to  avoid  turning  up  the 
unrotted  turf.  The  use  of  the  roller  or  some  other  imple- 
ment for  packing  the  soil  is  advisable  on  newly-plowed  land. 
The  seed  is  sometimes  sown  on  new  breaking  with  little  or 
no  preparation,  but  the  increased  yields  which  are  obtained 
where  a  good  seed  bed  has  been  prepared  usually  pay  for  the 
extra  work.  On  old  land,  deep  plowing  and  thorough  prep- 
aration are  necessary  in  order  to  get  the  best  results.  A 
firm,  well-packed  seed  bed  is  more  essential  to  success  with 
flax  than  with  almost  any  other  crop. 

303.  Preparing  the  Seed  for  Sowing.  Thorough  clean- 
ing and  grading  of  the  seed  are  necessary  to  obtain  the  best 
yields.  All  light  seed,  straw,  dirt,  and  weed  seed  should  be 
removed  by  running  the  grain  through  the  fanning  mill 
several  times.  By  grading,  seeds  of  uniform  size  and  weight 
are  obtained,  all  of  which  contain  practically  the  same  quan- 
tity of  food  material  for  the  young  plants.  If  proper  care 
is  taken  in  sowing  to  cover  the  seed  to  a  uniform  depth,  the 
growth  of  the  crop  throughout  the  season  is  uniform,  and 
it  all  ripens  at  the  same  time,  an  important  consideration. 
After  the  seed  has  been  cleaned  and  graded,  it  should  be 
treated  with  the  formaldehyde  solution  recommended  for 
wheat  smut  (Sec.  205).  This  destroys  any  spores  of  the  flax 
wilt  fungus  which  may  adhere  to  the  seed,  and  seems  also 
to  be  of  actual  benefit  to  the  early  growth  of  the  plants. 
The  best  method  of  treatment  is  to  sprinkle  the  solution  on 
a  pile  containing  from  5  to  10  bushels  of  seed,  shoveling  it 
over  so  that  it  is  all  reached  by  the  fungicide.  About  one- 
half  gallon  of  the  solution  is  needed  for  each  bushel  of  seed. 
After  all  the  seed  is  moistened,  cover  the  pile  with  a  canvas 
or  blanket  for  a  couple  of  hours  and  shovel  the  seed  over 


HARVESTING  FLAX  247 

once  or  twice  during  the  first  hour  after  treating.    The  seed 
may  be  sown  with  the  grain  drill  after  it  has  been  treated. 

304.  Sowing  the  Seed.    The  usual  method  of  sowing 
flax  is  with  the  grain  drill,  the  type  with  press  wheels  being 
rather  better  than  any  other,  as  it  helps  to  supply  the  firm 
seed  bed  so  necessary  for  the  best  growth  of  this  crop.    The 
usual  depth  of  seeding  is  from  J^  to  1  inch.     In  the  United 
States  the  common  rate  of  seeding  is  from  2  to  3  pecks  to  the 
acre.    This  seeding  produces  plants  with  numerous  branches, 
and  encourages  the  production  of  large  yields  of  seed.     On 
the  other  hand,  thick  seeding  produces  single  stems,  long 
straight  fiber,  and  comparatively  few  seeds.    When  flax  is 
grown  for  fiber,   the   rate  of  seeding  should   be  greatly 
increased.    The  quantity  of  seed  sown  for  fiber  production 
in  Europe  is  2  bushels  or  more  to  the  acre.    The  young  plants 
are  quite  easily  injured  by  late  spring  frosts,  hence  seeding 
should  be  delayed  until  danger  from  them  is  practically 
past.    On  the  other  hand,  seeding  at  the  earliest  safe  date 
is  desirable  in  order  to  escape  the  early  frosts  in  the  fall. 
Flax  is  usually  sown  in  the  latter  half  of  May  and  harvested 
early  in  September,  the  growing  season  of  the  crop  being 
from  90  to  100  days. 

305.  Harvesting  the  Crop.    The  usual  method  of  harvest- 
ing seed  flax  is  with  the  grain  binder.    The  crop  cures 
readily  in  the  shock  and  is  not  easily  injured  by  the  weather, 
though  excessive  rains  will  reduce  the  value  of  the  seed. 
The  seed  is  removed  from  the  straw  with  the  ordinary 
thrashing  machine.    The  harvesting  of  fiber  flax  is  quite 
another  matter,  as  practically  all  the  work  must  be  done  by 
hand  to  insure  fiber  of  the  best  quality.    Various  machines 
have  been  devised  for  the  harvesting  and  later  handling  of 
fiber  flax,  but  they  have  not  been  entirely  satisfactory.    The 
large  amount  of  hand  labor  required  in  the  production  of  this 


248 


FIELD  CROPS 


crop  accounts  for  its  failure  to  find  favor  with  American 
farmers.  For  the  profitable  production  of  fiber  flax,  an 
abundance  of  cheap  labor  is  necessary.  The  plants  are 
pulled  by  hand  and  tied  into  small  bundles,  and  are  then 
put  into  shocks  for  curing.  The  reason  for  pulling  the 
plants  instead  of  cutting  them  off  by  machinery  is  that 
weathering  and  contact  with  the  soil  injure  the  fiber  at  the 
cut  ends  of  the  plant. 

306.  The  Handling  of  Fiber  Flax.    While  the  production 
of  flax  for  fiber  may  never  become  important  in  America, 


mm 

I  I  H 


Fig.  82.     Samples  of  flax:  at  the  left,  the  fiber  type;  at  the  right,  flax  grown 
for  seed  production. 

the  various  steps  in  its  handling  are  of  interest.  The  seed 
is  thrashed  out  of  the  bundle  after  it  has  cured  for  two  or 
three  weeks  in  the  shock,  either  by  rubbing  or  by  holding  the 
heads  between  revolving  rollers  while  the  straw  is  held  in  the 
hands.  The  straw  is  then  bound  into  bundles  for  the  next 
process,  which  is  known  as  retting.  This  is  the  preparation 
of  the  straw  for  the  removal  of  the  outer  layers  from  the 
stalk,  by  spreading  it  thinly  on  the  ground  and  exposing  it  to 
the  weather  for  three  or  four  weeks.  After  this  time,  the 
various  layers  separate  easily  and  the  wood  and  bark  are 


GRADES  AND  PRICES  OF  FLAX  SEED  249 

removed  by  a  process  known  as  breaking.  The  straw  is 
either  pounded  with  wooden  mallets  or  bent  in  some  sort  of 
machine,  but  the  best  quality  of  fiber  is  obtained  when  the 
work  is  done  by  hand  with  mallets.  Any  coarse  fiber,  bark, 
or  wood  which  remains  is  removed  by  a  process  known  as 
scutching,  which  consists  of  beating  the  bundles  of  fiber  with 
a  series  of  paddles.  This  is  sometimes  done  by  hand,  but 
usually  by  machinery.  .  The  fiber  is  then  sorted  according 
to  its  quality  and  baled  into  bundles  of  about  200  pounds 
each.  It  is  kept  in  these  bales  until  it  is  spun  into  thread 
and  woven  into  cloth,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
cotton.  Some  of  the  finest  laces  and  fabrics  are  made  from 
linen  thread.  The  coarser  fiber,  or  tow,  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  twine  and  in  upholstering. 

307.  Market  Grades  of  Flaxseed.     Minneapolis  is  one 
of  the  principal  markets  for  flaxseed,  and  the  official  grades 
fixed  by  the  Minneapolis  Board  of  Grain  Appeals  may  be 
taken  as  standard.     These  grades  are  No.  1  Northwestern, 
No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No  grade..   No.  1  Northwestern  flaxseed 
''shall   be   mature,   sound,   dry,   and   sweet.     It   shall   be 
northern  grown.    The  maximum  quantity  of  field,  stack, 
storage,  or  other  damaged  seed  intermixed  shall  not  exceed 
12^/2  per  cent.     The  minimum  weight  shall  be  51  pounds  to 
the   measured   bushel,    commercially   pure   seed."     No.    1 
flaxseed  may  contain  25  per  cent  of  immature  or  damaged 
seed,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to  the  bushel. 
The  other  grades  include  flax  not  fit  for  either  of  the  higher 
grades  mentioned. 

308.  Prices  and  Acre  Value.    The  average  farm  price  of 
flaxseed  in  the  United  States  for  the  ten  year&  from  1902  to 
1911  was  $1.25  per  bushel,  with  a  range  from  84.4  cents  in 
1905  to  $2.32  in  1910.    The  1910  crop  was  little  more  than 
half  as  large  as  the  normal  one,  which  accounts  for  the  high 


250  FIELD  CROPS 

price.  The  price  which  can  ordinarily  be  expected  for  flax- 
seed  varies  from  $1  to  $1.50  per  bushel.  The  average  acre 
value  usually  ranges  from  $8  to  $10,  though  in  recent  years 
it  has  been  slightly  higher.  This  is  for  the  seed  alone. 
Where  there  is  a  demand  for  the  straw,  this  brings  in  some 
additional  return.  As  flax  is  ordinarily  grown  with  very 
little  expense,  there  is  a  reasonable  profit  in  the  crop. 

309.  Diseases    and    Insect    Enemies.    The    principal 
disease  which  attacks  flax  in  this  country  is  flax  wilt.     It  is 
this  disease  which  commonly  causes  the  condition  known 
as  " flax-sick  soil,"  though  other  fungous  diseases  produce 
the  same  result.    Flax  wilt  is  a  fungus  which  enters  the 
young  plant,  from  spores  either  in  the  soil  or  on  the  seed. 
The  fungus  grows  inside  the  tissues  of  the  plant  and  fills  the 
cells,  causing  the  plant  to  die  as  if  from  lack  of  water.    The 
plants  are  attacked  at  all  stages  of  growth,  from  young  seed- 
lings to  maturity.     The  best  preventive  measures  are  to  sow 
only  clean  seed  from  which  all  dirt  and  pieces  of  flax  straw 
have  been  removed,  to  treat  the  seed  with  the  formaldehyde 
solution  (Sec.  205),  and  to  grow  flax  on  new  land  only,  or 
as  a  single  crop  in  a  rotation  of  several  years'  duration. 
Much  can  also  be  accomplished  by  saving  seed  from  plants 
which  mature  in  flax-sick  soil  and  hence  are  resistant  to  the 
disease.    Manure  containing  flax  straw  or  from  stock  fed 
on  flax  straw  should  not  be  put  on  land  on  which  flax  is  to  be 
grown.    Several  other  fungous  diseases  occur,   but  most 
of  them  are  similar  to  flax  wilt,  though  of  a  less  serious 
nature,  and  yield  to  the  same  treatment.    The  crop  is  not 
subject  to  serious  injury  from  insects. 

310.  Place  in  the  Rotation.    On  account  of  the  fungous 
diseases  which  attack  flax  when  it  is  grown  for  several  years 
on  the  same  land,  rotation  of  crops  is  particularly  essential 
if  this  crop  is  to  become  a  permanent  one  in  any  locality. 


U8E8  OF  FLAX  SEED 


251 


Because  of  the  common  practice  of  growing  it  only  on  new 
land,  no  definite  rotations  containing  flax  have  yet  been 
established  by  farmers  or  experimenters.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  to  escape  injury  from  flax  diseases,  this  crop 
should  not  be  grown  on  a  field  more  frequently  than  once  in 
five  years,  and  better  results  are  obtained  where  a  cultivated 
crop  and  a  grass  crop  are  included  in  the  rotation  than  where 
small  grains  alone  are  grown. 

311.  Uses  of  Flaxseed.    Practically  all  of  the  flaxseed 
produced  in  the  United  States  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture 


Fig.  83.     A  linseed  oil  mill,  with  steel  tanks  at  the  right  for 
storing  the  flaxseed. 

of  linseed  oil.  There  are  two  methods  of  extracting  the  oil 
from  the  seed,  known  as  the  old  process  and  the  new  process. 
The  old  process  consists  of  crushing  the  seed,  heating  it  to 
about  165°  F.,  and  placing  it  in  sacks  or  between  cloths 
and  forcing  the  oil  out  by  pressure.  The  new  process  differs 
from  this  in  that  the  crushed  and  heated  seed  is  placed  in 
tanks  or  cylinders  and  treated  with  naphtha  to  extract  the 
oil.  This  oil  is  then  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paints, 


252  FIELD  CROPS 

varnishes,  oilcloth  or  linoleum  (in  combination  with  ground 
cork),  and  various  other  articles.  The  meal  from  which  the 
oil  has  been  extracted  is  used  for  feeding  to  stock,  either  as 
it  comes  from  the  presses  as  oilcake,  or  crushed  or  ground 
into  the  form  known  as  oilmeal  or  linseed  meal.  Oilmeal  is 
very  rich  in  protein,  and  is  used  for  feeding  to  dairy  cows  and 
to  other  animals.  On  account  of  its  richness,  it  must  be  fed 
in  small  quantities,  in  combination  with  other  grains.  Whole 
flaxseed  is  seldom  fed  to  stock,  for  it  is  too  high  in  price  as 
compared  with  other  grains.  Flax  straw  is  not  usually 
regarded  as  a  feeding  stuff  of  value,  though  it  contains  con- 
siderable nutriment.  In  years  when  other  forage  is  scarce, 
however,  it  is  quite  a  useful  feed.  The  straw  is  now  utilized 
to  some  extent  in  this  country  in  the  manufacture  of  twine, 
coarse  bagging,  tow  for  upholstering,  and  felting  material. 
312.  Improvement  of  the  Crop.  While  the  growing  of 
fiber  flax  may  never  become  an  important  industry  in  the 
United  States,  more  attention  can  well  be  given  to  the  pro- 
duction of  better  grades  of  straw  for  the  mills  which  utilize 
it  in  the  manufacture  of  twine  and  other  articles.  The  farmer 
thus  gets  a  double  return  for  his  crop  in  the  sale  of  both  the 
seed  and  the  straw.  Selection  of  plants  that  have  the 
longest  straw  combined  with  a  good  yield  of  seed  will  greatly 
improve  the  quality  of  the  straw  for  fiber  purposes.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  selection  of  heavy-yielding  plants  and  their 
increase  into  sufficient  quantities  for  field  planting  can  be 
carried  out  along  the  lines  recommended  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  small  grains  (See  index).  The  greatest  improve- 
ment, however,  can  be  made  by  developing  wilt-resistant 
strains.  Excellent  work  has  already  been  done  in  this 
direction  by  Professor  Bolley  of  the  North  Dakota  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  others,  but  much  remains  to  be  accom- 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  253 

plished.  The  best  results  can  be  obtained  by  making  the 
selection  of  these  resistant  strains  in  the  locality  in  which 
they  are  to  be  grown.  The  plants  which  mature  in  a  field 
attacked  by  flax  wilt  should  be  harvested  and  the  seed  care- 
fully saved.  It  is  only  by  growing  these  resistant  plants 
that  strains  which  are  not  subject  to  the  disease  can  be  devel- 
oped. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

If  material  is  available,  have  the  class  study  the  plants  and  describe 
them  as  they  have  done  with  the  other  grains.  Samples  of  seed  may 
be  judged  on  the  size  and  uniformity  of  the  grain,  freedom  from  green 
and  shriveled  seed,  and  freedom  from  other  grains,  weed  seeds,  and 
trash. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

27.  Flax  for  Seed  and  Fiber. 
274.  Flax  Culture. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  293-302. 
Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  386-394. 
Manual  of  Flax  Culture  (Orange  Judd  Co.) 
Wilcox  and  Smith's  Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  pp.  50-52. 


CHAPTER  IX 

MISCELLANEOUS  GRAIN  CROPS 

RICE 

313.  Origin  and  History.     Rice  is  one  of  the  oldest  of 
cultivated  plants,  its  cultivation  in  China  dating  back  at 
least  4,000  years.     It  is  evidently  a  native  of  that  country, 
for  it  still  grows  wild  in  the  southern  portion.    Rice  was 
carried  from  China  into  India,  then  into  western  Asia,  Egypt, 
and  southern  Europe.     Its  introduction  into  the  United 
States  is  said  to  date  from  1694,  when  a  small  quantity  was 
brought   to    Charleston,    South   Carolina.     Its   cultivation 
soon  became  quite  general  in  the  low  lands  along  the  Caro- 
lina coast,  but  it  was  not  grown  on  a  large  scale  elsewhere  in 
North  America  until  within  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty 
years. 

314.  Botanical  Characters.     Rice  does  not  differ  materi- 
ally in  its  growth  from  the  other  cereals.     Botanically,  the 
rice  plant  is  known  as  Oryza  sativa.     Its  nearest  relative 
in  a  wild  state  in  the  United  States  is  the  wild  rice  of  the 
swamps,  Zizania  aquatica,  which  was  used  as  food  by  the 
Indians.    The   culms  of   cultivated   rice   usually  reach  a 
height  of  from  4  to  5  feet,  several  culms  being  produced  from 
one  seed.    The  flowers  are  produced  in  compact  panicles; 
the  spikelets,  which  are  one-flowered,  are  on  short  pedicels. 
The  outer  glumes  are  short  scales;  the  inner  or  flowering 
glume,  which  incloses  the  kernel,  is  sometimes  awned.     The 
flowering  glume  and  palea  together  make  up  the  hull  or  husk, 
which  is  usually  yellowish  brown  in  color.     The  inner  por- 


VARIETIES   OF  RICE 


255 


tion  of  the  grain  is  hard  and  white.  Rice  which  is  enclosed 
in  the  hull  is  known  as  paddy;  that  from  which  the  hull  has 
been  removed  is  known  as  cleaned  rice. 

315.  Varieties.  The  two  general  types  of  rice  are  the 
lowland  and  the  upland;  the  former  is  grown  on  rather  low, 
level  land  which  can  be  flooded  from  wells  or  streams,  while 
the  latter  is  produced  without  irrigation.  The  lowland  is 
the  type  grown  almost  entirely  in  this  country.  The  variety 


Fig.  84.     The  two  common  types  of  rice  grown  in  America; 
Honduras  on  the  left,  a  Japanese  variety  on  the  right. 

most  commonly  grown  in  South  Carolina  is  the  Carolina 
Gold,  with  golden-yellow  hulls.  In  Louisiana  and  Texas, 
the  types  usually  grown  are  the  Honduras  and  the  Japan. 
Both  are  yellowish  brown  in  color;  the  grains  of  Honduras 
rice  are  larger  and  longer,  but  relatively  thinner,  than  those 
of  the  Japan  type.  The  Japan  rice  is  of  comparatively 
recent  introduction,  though  large  quantities  of  it  are  now 
grown. 


256  FIELD  CROPS 

316.  Importance  of  the  Crop.  Rice  is  one  of  the  world's 
greatest  food  crops,  being  a  staple  article  of  diet  for  several 
hundred  millions  of  people  in  India,  China,  and  Japan. 
The  total  annual  production  of  cleaned  rice  is  something  like 
175,000,000,000  pounds,  indicating  an  annual  production  of 
rough  rice,  or  paddy,  of  about  280,000,000,000  pounds,  as 
compared  with  the  world's  wheat  crop  of  204,000,000,000 
pounds,  and  a  slightly  smaller  corn  crop.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  this  enormous  crop  is  raised  in  Asia.  India  has  an 
annual  production  of  70,000,000,000  pounds  of  cleaned 
rice,  China  50,000,000,000  pounds,  and  Japan  18,000,000,- 
000  pounds.  The  total  European  production  of  rice  amounts 
to  about  12,000,000,000  pounds  annually,  most  of  which  is 
grown  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

In  comparison  with  these  figures,  the  production  of  rice 
in  the  United  States  is  insignificant,  the  average  yield  for 
the  five  years  from  1905  to  1909  being  only  534,000,000 
pounds.  Practically  all  of  this  crop  is  grown  in  the  three 
states  of  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Arkansas.  In  slavery  times, 
South  Carolina  produced  most  of  the  rice  grown  in  the 
United  States,  but  after  the  slaves  were  freed  the  industry 
rapidly  declined.  The  fields  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  are 
small  and  not  adapted  to  the  use  of  modern  seeding  and 
harvesting  machinery,  while  the  level  plains  of  Louisiana 
and  Texas,  with  abundant  water  for  irrigation  from  wells 
and  rivers,  furnish  ideal  conditions  for  the  cheap  production 
of  rice  on  a  large  scale.  Since  the  introduction  of  modern 
machinery  into  this  district,  about  1885,  there  has  been  an 
immense  increase  in  the  production  of  rice,  though  the 
United  States  still  imports  about  200,000,000  pounds  of 
cleaned  rice  annually.  In  1910,  371,000  acres  were  devoted 
to  rice  production  in  Louisiana,  265,000  acres  in  Texas,  and 
60,000  acres  in  Arkansas.  The  average  yield  to  the  acre 


THE  CULTURE  OF  RICE  257 

was  about  35  bushels  of  rough  rice  of  45  pounds  each,  equiv- 
alent to  about  1,000  pounds  of  cleaned  rice.  The  total 
crop  of  the  United  States  was  valued  at  $16,000,000.  This 
is  one-third  less  than  the  value  of  the  rye  crop. 

317.  Conditions   Necessary  to   Production.    The   con- 
ditions which  are  necessary  to  the  successful  production  of 
lowland  rice  include  a  soil  which  retains  moisture  and  is 
level  enough  to  be  readily  irrigated,  an  abundant  supply  of 
water  for  irrigation,   and  a  warm  growing  season.     The 
fertile  river  valleys  and  plains  of  Arkansas,  Texas,   and 
Louisiana  are  ideal  for  the  production  of  this  crop. 

318.  Growing  the  Crop.    The  methods  of  preparing  the 
land  for  rice  as  practiced  in  Texas  and  Louisiana  are  not 
different  from  those  used  in  the  Northern  and  Central  states 
for  other  cereals.    The  land  is  usually  plowed  in  the  spring 
and  is  disked  and  harrowed  to  form  a  good  seed  bed.    To 
prevent  too  rapid  loss  of  water  from  a  loose  soil,  newly- 
plowed  land  is  sometimes  rolled.    The  seed  is  generally  sown 
with  a  grain  drill  at  the  rate  of  from  1  to  2  bushels  to  the 
acre,  usually  from  April  15  to  May  15.    The  seeding  and 
harvesting  seasons  may  extend  over  a  considerable  period  on 
a  given  farm,  thus  enabling  the  farmer  to  put  in  a  com- 
paratively large  acreage  with  a  small  equipment.    Water  is 
not  usually  applied  to  rice  fields  until  the  crop  is  about  8 
inches  high;  then  it  is  let  in  to  a  depth  of  from  3  to  6  inches, 
and  this  depth  is  maintained  till  the  crop  is  nearly  mature. 
To  prevent  the  water  from  becoming  stagnant,  a  practically 
continuous  flow  is  provided,  with  drainage  to  maintain  the 
proper  level.    When  the  crop  begins  to  ripen,  the  water  is 
drawn  off  to  allow  the  ground  to  dry  out  sufficiently  for 
harvesting.    The  ordinary  grain  binder  is  used;  the  methods 
of  harvesting,  stacking,  and  thrashing  are  not  different  from 
those  used  with  other  grains, 

u 


258  FIELD  CROPS 

319.  Uses  of  Rice  and  Rice  Products.    Rice  is  almost 
entirely  used  as  human  food.     In  the  United  States,  the 
milling  process  consists  in  removing  the  hull  and  inner  skin 
of  the  grain  and  in  polishing  the  kernel  between  pieces  of 
sheepskin  to  give  it  the  luster  required  by  the  American 
trade.     The  Orientals  dispense  with  this  polishing  process, 
and  thus  retain  a  large  part  of  the  food  value  of  the  rice 
which  we  lose.     The  portion  of  the  rice  kernel  which  is 
removed  in  the  polishing  process  is  more  valuable  relatively 
than  that  which  remains,  as  it  contains  nearly  all  the  fat. 
The  by-products  of  the  milling  industry  are  rice  hulls,  rice 
bran,  and  rice  flour  or  polish.     Rice  hulls  are  of  little  value 
except  as  fertilizer  or  mulch,  for  they  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  fiber  and  little  nutriment.    Rice  bran  and  rice 
polish,  however,  are  both  valuable  stock  feeds.     Rice  straw 
is  about  equal  in  feeding  value  to  prairie  hay,  and  is  quite 
largely  used  as  rough  feed  for  stock.     It  is  also  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  manufacture  of  straw  hats,  strawboard,  and 
other  articles. 

THE  GRAIN  SORGHUMS 

320.  Origin    and    History.    The    sorghums    which    are 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  world  for  grain  and  forage  for 
the  most  part  have  been  developed  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
A  large  number  of  very  diverse  forms  have  been  produced, 
including  the  many  sweet  or  forage  sorghums,  the  grain- 
bearing  varieties  such  as  kafir,  milo,  and  durra,  and  the  fiber- 
producing   type,    represented    by   broomcorn.    The   grain 
sorghums  are  important  crops  for  the  production  of  food  for 
man  and  animals  quite  generally  in  Africa,  India,  and  por- 
tions of   China.     Their  cultivation  in  the  United  States 
dates  back  only  to  about  1875,  though  some  of  the  types  had 


DESCRIPTION  OF   THE   SORGHUMS 


259 


doubtless  been  grown  at  an  earlier  period,  but  had  disap- 
peared from  cultivation. 

321.  Botanical  Description.    The  various  types  of  culti- 
vated sorghums  are  all  grouped  by  botanists  under  the  head 


Fig.  So.     Sheaves  of  grain  sorghums:  1,  Red  kafir;  2,  Shallu;  3,  Black  hull  kafir; 
4,  White  durra;  5,  Brown  kowliang;  6,  Yellow  milo;  7,  Dwarf  milo. 

of  Andropogon  halepensis.  This  original  type  is  still  found 
quite  generally  in  the  warmer  portions  of  the  globe.  In 
general,  the  sorghums  are  large  annual  grasses  with  tall, 
pithy  stalks,  growing  from  4  to  10  feet  high,  and  bearing  the 


260  FIELD  CROPS 

seeds  in  a  rather  compact  branching  head  or  panicle.  The 
height  of  the  stalk,  the  shape  of  the  head,  the  size  of  the 
seeds,  and  other  characters  are  decidedly  variable  in  the 
different  types  and  varieties.  Dwarf  forms  which  do  not 
grow  more  than  2  or  3  feet  tall  are  known,  while  giant  types 
reaching  more  than  15  feet  in  height  have  been  imported 
from  Africa.  The  heads  vary  from  the  close,  compact  form 
of  the  durras  to  the  wide  spreading  type  of  the  broomcorns. 
The  pith  in  the  stalks  of  the  grain  sorghums  is  dry  or  con- 
tains little  juice,  while  that  of  the  forage  or  sweet  sorghums 
(sorgos)  is  filled  with  sweet  juice.  The  long  branching 
panicle  separates  the  broomcorns  from  the  other  types  of 
sorghum  with  shorter  branches.  The  sweet  sorghums  are 
discussed  under  the  heading  of  forage  crops  (Sec.  427).  As 
the  culture  and  requirements  of  broomcorn  are  quite  similar 
to  those  of  the  grain  sorghums,  that  crop  is  considered 
in  this  chapter. 

322.  The  Types  of  Grain  Sorghums.  The  grain  sorghums 
usually  grown  in  the  United  States  are  of  two  general  types, 
kafir  (kafir  corn)  and  milo  (milo  maize).  Three  other  types, 
known  as  durra,  shallu,  and  kowliang,  are  occasionally 
grown.  The  kafirs  differ  from  the  other  grain  sorghums  in 
that  the  pith  is  slightly  juicy,  the  peduncles  are  always 
erect,  and  the  panicles  cylindrical.  The  seeds  are  white, 
pink,  or  red.  The  milos  are  less  leafy  than  the  kafirs,  the 
heads  are  ovate,  and  the  peduncles  are  usually  bent  so  that 
the  heads  turn  downward.  The  seeds  are  slightly  flattened 
and  are  usually  yellowish-brown  in  color.  The  ordinary 
type  is  the  yellow  milo.  The  durras  are  quite  similar  to  the 
milos,  but  the  pith  is  always  dry  and  the  seeds  are  decidedly 
flattened.  The  seed  is  white  or  reddish  brown  in  color. 
The  kowliangs  and  shallu  are  recently  introduced  types  and 
are  as  yet  of  little  importance. 


THE  GRAIN  SORGKUM  AREA  261 

323.  Importance  of  the  Sorghums.    The  grain  sorghums 
are  largely  grown  in  India,  the  warmer  portions  of  China, 
and  Africa.    In  the  United  States,  they  are  almost  entirely 
confined  to  the  Great  Plains  area,  the  country  lying  between 
the  98th  meridian  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.    In  western 
Texas,  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  they  are  important 
crops.    Only  the  earliest  maturing  varieties  can  be  grown  as 
far  north  as  South  Dakota,  or  at  the  ordinary  elevations  in 
New  Mexico  and  Colorado.    Sorghums  are  grown  to  some 
extent  in  the  interior  valleys  of  California,  the  type  most 
common  there  being  white  durra,  locally  known  as  Egyptian 
corn.    The  value  of  the  grain  sorghum  lies  in  its  ability  to 
resist  drouth  and  to  mature  a  crop  of  grain  with  little  rain- 
fall.   It  supplies  a  cultivated  crop  to  use  in  rotation  with  the 
small  grains  in  sections  where  the  production  of  corn  is 
uncertain,  and  takes  the  place  of  that  grain  for  feeding  to 
stock.    The  area  devoted  to  the  grain  sorghums  in  Kansas 
is  about  three-fourths  of  a  million  acres,  and  Oklahoma 
grows  practically  the  same  amount.    No  figures  are  published 
for  other  states,  but  the  total  crop  of  the  United  States 
undoubtedly  occupies  more  than  2,000,000  acres.     This  is 
about  the  area  devoted  to  rye. 

324.  Methods  of  Growing  the  Crop.    The  usual  methods 
of  preparing  the  land,  planting  the  seed,  and  cultivating  the 
grain  sorghums  are  not  different  from  those  employed  in  the 
same  district  for  the  corn  crop,  except  that  the  seed  is  sown 
more  thickly  in  the  rows.    The  plants  should  stand  about 
4  to  6  inches  apart  for  the  best  yield  of  grain  and  forage. 
From  4  to  6  pounds  of  seed  will  plant  an  acre.     The  sorghums 
are  usually  planted  a  little  later  than  corn,  as  they  are  not 
quite  as  resistant  to  cold  and  grow  very  slowly  till  warm, 
settled  weather.    The  crop  is  usually  harvested  by  cutting  it 
with  the  corn  binder  and  shocking  it  like  corn,  or  by  cutting 


262  FIELD  CROPS 

the  heads  from  the  stalks  with  knives  or  with  some  form  of 
header.  The  shocked  sorghum  may  then  be  fed  to  stock  like 
corn  fodder,  or  it  may  be  thrashed  like  small  grain.  The 
kafir  and  milo  heads  may  be  stored  in  cribs  like  corn  and  fed 
without  thrashing,  or  they  may  be  thrashed  like  wheat  or 
oats  and  only  the  thrashed  grain  used  for  feeding. 

325.  Value  of  the  Grain.  Most  of  the  grain  sorghum 
crop  is  used  for  feeding  to  stock,  for  which  purpose  it  is 
nearly  as  valuable  as  corn.  The  seed  is  fed  either  whole  or 


Fig  86.     Harvesting  kafir  for  forage  with  a  corn  binder. 

crushed;  slightly  better  results  are  usually  obtained  from  the 
crushed  grain.  The  grain  sorghums  make  up  a  large  part 
of  the  prepared  poultry  feeds  which  are  on  the  market, 
considerable  quantities  being  used  annually  for  this  purpose. 
Only  a  small  portion  of  the  crop  is  used  for  human  food, 
though  very  palatable  breakfast  foods,  bread,  and  pan- 
cakes may  be  prepared  from  kafir  and  milo.  The  stalks 
and  leaves  of  kafir,  when  properly  cured,  are  fully  as  good 
for  forage  as  the  same  parts  of  the  corn  plant.  Milo  is  less 


BROOMCORN  CULTURE  263 

leafy  than  kafir  and  the  stalks  are  less  palatable,  so  that 

milo  stover  is  less  valuable  than  that  from  kafir. 

• — - — 

BROOMCORN 

326.  Culture.    Broomcorn  is  not  a  grain  crop  nor  can  it 
be  included  with  any  other  important  class  of  crops,  but  it  is 
so  closely  related  to  the  grain  sorghums  that  it  can  best  be 
discussed  with  them.    The  methods  of  growing  the  crop 
are  not  different  from  those  employed  in  the  production  of 
corn  and  the  grain  sorghums.    Broomcorn  is  of  two  general 
types,  the  standard  and  the  dwarf.    Standard  broomcorn 
grows  from  8  to  10  feet  high  and  produces  a  long,  slender, 
rather  flexible  brush;  dwarf  broomcorn  grows  from  4  to  6 
feet  high  and  usually  produces  a  shorter,  stiff er  brush.     The 
crop  is  grown  principally  in  Illinois,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
Oklahoma;  the  standard  type  is  more  largely  grown  in 
central  Illinois  than  elsewhere.     It  requires  a  fertile  soil 
and  plenty  of  moisture,  while  dwarf  broomcorn  produces 
brush  of  the  best  quality  on  light  sandy  land.     Dwarf  broom- 
corn  resists  drouth  better  than  the  standard,  and  is  grown 
most  extensively  in   Kansas  and  Oklahoma.     The  usual 
width  between  rows  of  the  standard  is  3J^  feet,  with  the 
plants  3  inches  apart  in  the  row;  dwarf  broomcorn  is  planted 
in  rows  3  feet  apart  with  the  plants  2  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
From  3  to  5  pounds  of  seed  are  planted  to  the  acre. 

327.  Harvesting.     Dwarf   broomcorn   is   harvested    by 
pulling  the  heads  from  the  stalks  by  hand  when  they  are  in 
bloom,  as  the  brush  is  of  inferior  quality  when  the  seeds 
mature.    The  brush  is  then  thrown  into  wagons  and  hauled 
to   the   thrasher.    Standard   broomcorn   is   harvested   by 
"tabling"  before  the  heads  are  removed  from  the  stalks. 
In  tabling,  the  stalks  are  bent  over  about  2J^  feet  from  the 
ground,  two  rows  being  bent  together  so  that  the  heads  of 


264  FIELD  CROPS 

each  extend  about  2  feet  beyond  the  other.  The  brush  is 
removed  by  cutting  the  stalk  with  a  small  knife,  about  6 
inches  below  the  base  of  the  head.  The  heads  are  laid  in 
bunches  on  the  " tables"  as  they  are  cut  and  are  then  hauled 
to  the  thrasher.  The  seed  is  removed  from  the  brush  by  a 
machine  specially  built  for  the  purpose.  The  heads  are 
carried  to  the  cylinders  on  a  toothed  belt  which  runs  at  an 
angle  to  them  so  that  the  heads  do  not  go  completely  between 
them.  The  upper  portion  of  the  heads  passes  between  the 
cylinders  sufficiently  to  remove  the  seed,  and  the  brush  is 
deposited  on  a  table  at  the  other  end  of  the  machine,  from 
which  it  is  taken  to  the  curing  shed.  In  harvesting,  poorly 
formed  heads  should  be  left  in  the  field,  while  crooked  or 
discolored  brush  should  be  sorted  out  in  thrashing. 

328.  Curing  and  Marketing.  The  curing  is  done  in  a 
well-ventilated  shed  which  may  be  used  for  storing  machinery 
or  for  other  purposes  during  most  of  the  year.  The  cleaned 
brush  is  placed  on  temporary  slatted  racks  in  layers  2  or  3 
inches  deep,  with  an  inch  or  two  of  air  space  between  the 
layers.  Curing  under  cover  is  necessary  to  retain  the 
desirable  green  color  of  the  brush,  and  to  prevent  it  from 
becoming  brittle  or  discolored.  From  two  to  four  weeks  of 
dry  weather  are  required  for  curing,  after  which  the  brush 
should  be  neatly  piled  together  or  " bulked"  to  prevent 
bleaching.  After  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  ready  for  baling. 
Broomcorn  goes  to  market  in  bales  of  from  300  to  400  pounds 
in  weight,  the  baling  being  done  by  horse-power  presses. 
The  price  varies  greatly  with  the  size  of  the  total  crop  and 
the  length  and  quality  of  the  brush.  It  ranges  ordinarily 
from  $50  to  $100  a  ton,  though  it  may  reach  $200  or  more  in 
years  when  the  crop  is  short.  A  good  crop  of  dwarf  brush  is 
about  400  or  500  pounds  to  the  acre,  while  standard  broom- 
corn  will  produce  from  600  to  800  pounds, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BUCKWHEAT  265 

BUCKWHEAT 

329.  Origin  and  History.    Buckwheat  is  one  of  the  few 
grains  which  do  not  belong  to  the  grass  family,  flax  being 
the  only  other  one  which  is  of  importance  in  America.     It 
is  a  member  of  the  dock  or  buckwheat  family,  the  Poly- 
gonaceae,  which  includes  few  useful  plants,  but    numer- 
ous bad  weeds  such  as  the  docks,  smartweeds,  and  knot- 
weeds.    A  peculiarity  of  this  family  is  the  three-angled 
(rarely  four-angled)  seeds.    The  ordinary  buckwheat,  Fago- 
pyrum  fagopyrum,  is  a  native  of  the  Amur  River  district  of 
Manchuria,  where  it  is  still  found  growing  wild.    A  type 
which  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  Maine  and  Vermont  is  the 
Tartary  buckwheat,  or  "India  wheat/'  Fagopyrum  Tatar- 
icum,  with  smaller  seeds,  broader  leaves,  and  more  slender 
growth.    This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  plains  in  the  interior 
of  Siberia  and  Tartary.    The  name  buckwheat  is  supposed 
to  have  been  originally  "beech-wheat"  from  the  resemblance 
of  the  grain  to  small  beech  nuts. 

330.  Botanical  Description.    The   buckwheat  plant   is 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the  cereals,  consisting  of  a 
single,  branching,  succulent  stem,  broad  leaves,  and  a  main 
root  with  several  branches.    The  plant  grows  usually  about 
3  feet  tall,  with  several  branches,  each  of  which  ends  in  a 
flat-topped  cluster  of  flowers.    These  clusters  also  spring 
from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.    The  leaves  are  alternate,  tri- 
angular, and  about  as  broad  at  the  base  as  they  are  long, 
the  width  varying  from  2  to  4  inches.    The  flowers  are  white 
or  pinkish-white,  without  petals,  but  with  a  five-parted 
calyx,  eight  stamens,  and  a  three-parted  pistil.    The  flower 
produces  a  single  three-angled  seed,  grayish  or  brown  in 
color,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long. 


266  FIELD  CROPS 

331.  Varieties.  The  most  common  varieties  of  the 
ordinary  buckwheat  are  the  Japanese  and  the  Silver  hull. 
These  differ  mainly  in  size  and  color.  Silverhull  is  smaller 
and  plumper  and  lighter  in  color  than  Japanese.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  which  produces  the  more  grain  and  the  better 
quality  of  flour.  Tartary  buckwheat  is  smaller  than  the 
ordinary  type  and,  according  to  growers  in  Maine,  is  some- 
what hardier.  It  probably  yields  less  than  Japanese  and 
Silverhull. 


-. 

* 


Fig.  87.     Grains  of  the  two  most  common  varieties  of  buckwheat;  Japanese 
at  the  left,  Silverhull  at  the  right. 

332.  Importance.  The  entire  area  devoted  to  buck- 
wheat in  the  United  States  is  only  about  800,000  acres 
annually,  so  that  this  is  one  of  the  minor  crops.  About 
three-fourths  of  the  crop  is  grown  in  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania. The  average  production  of  the  United  States  for 
the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911  inclusive  was  15,317,000 
bushels,  of  which  New  York  grew  6,667,000  bushels  and 
Pennsylvania  5,143,000  bushels.  No  other  state  produced 
more  than  a  million  bushels,  the  states  of  largest  production 
being  Maine,  Vermont,  West  Virginia,  and  Virginia.  Except 


BUCKWHEAT  CULTURE  26? 

in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  buckwheat  can  not  be  con- 
sidered a  staple  crop,  but  is  generally  sown  as  a  filler  or  catch 
crop  on  land  where  corn  or  some  other  early-planted  crop 
has  failed.  It  yields  well  on  poor  land,  hence  it  is  grown 
quite  generally  on  rocky  hillsides  and  other  dry  locations. 
The  best  yield  is  produced  on  sandy  loam  soils.  The  chief 
value  of  buckwheat  lies  in  its  quick  maturity,  enabling  it  to 
ripen  its  seed  when  sown  as  late  as  July  1,  thus  giving  an 
opportunity  to  get  some  return  from  fields  where  previous 
crops  have  been  destroyed  by  floods  or  from  other  causes. 
As  it  makes  a  quick,  rank  growth,  it  is  also  an  excellent  crop 
for  clearing  land  of  weeds  and  to  plow  under  for  green 
manure. 

333.  Method  of  Cultivation.    Buckwheat  should  be  sown 
on  well  prepared  land  during  the  latter  part  of  May  or  in 
June.    Seeding  as  late  as  July  1  is  possible  where  the  grow- 
ing season  is  not  too  short.    The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is 
about  3  or  4  pecks  to  the  acre.    The  seed  may  be  sown  broad- 
cast or  with  the  grain  drill.     If  sown  broadcast,  it  should  be 
well  covered  with  the  harrow.     Cutting  is  usually  delayed 
till  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  as  the  plants  continue  to 
bloom  and  produce  seed  until  killed  by  frost.    The  usual 
method  of  cutting  is  with  the  self-rake  reaper,  the  grain 
being  cured  in  the  bunches  and  not  tied  into  bundles.    These 
bunches  are  often  set  up  into  shocks  to  lessen  the  injury  from 
weathering.    Cutting  with  the  grain  binder  is  sometimes 
practiced;  the  bundles  should  be  made  small  and  should  be 
set  up  in  long  shocks  to  facilitate  curing.    The  grain  is 
usually  hauled  direct  from  the  field  to  the  thrashing  machine 
and  thrashed,  for  it  is  likely  to  mold  if  stacked. 

334.  Uses.    Buckwheat  is  most  largely  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  pancake  flour.     In  some  sections,  however, 
it  is  quite  extensively  used  for  feeding  to  stock.     For  hogs, 


268 


FIELD  CROPS 


it  is  ground  and  bolted  to  remove  the  hulls,  but  this  is  hardly 
necessary  when  the  grain  is  fed  to  other  animals.  Buck- 
wheat is  also  an  excellent  poultry  feed.  The  straw  is  coarse 
and  stiff,  so  that  it  is  of  little  value  except  as  bedding  or  to 
make  manure.  The  buckwheat  plant  is  a  large  producer  of 
honey,  small  fields  often  being  sown  for  bee  pasture. 

THE  MILLETS 

335.  Types  of  Millet.    The  term  "millet"  includes  a 

number  of  very  differ- 
ent types  of  grasses, 
though  it  is  generally 
applied  in  this  coun- 
try to  two  plants,  the 
foxtail  millets,  Chae- 
tochloa  italica,  and  the 
broomcorn  or  hog  mil- 
lets, Panicum  milia- 
ceum.  Both  these 
plants  probably  origi- 
nated in  southwestern 
Asia,  and  have  been 
cultivated  there  since 
very  early  times. 
They  have  been  used 
as  food  plants  for 
many  centuries,  and 
are  still  important 

Fig.  88.     Heads  of  two  types  of  broomcorn  millet.      ^ems   P*    *o°d    in    the 

interior  of  China  and 

in  other  portions  of  Asia,  as  well  as  in  Russia.  The  foxtail 
millets  are  more  generally  grown  in  this  country  for  forage 
than  for  grain;  they  are  more  fully  discussed  in  Sec.  433. 


CULTURE  OF  MILLET  269 

336.  Broomcorn    Millet.    Broomcorn    or    hog    millet, 
sometimes  known  as  proso,  has  been  grown  in  the  United 
States  only  in  recent  years,  having  been  introduced  by  immi- 
grants from  Russia.    The  plant  grows  from  1  to  2  feet  high, 
with  numerous  broad,  hairy  leaves  and  stiff,  hollow  stems. 
The  heads  are  usually  loose,  open  panicles  resembling  small 
heads  of  broomcorn,  though  in  some  varieties  the  branches 
of  the  panicle  are  much  shorter,  making  a  close  head  of 
the  "lump"  type.    The  cultivation  of  this  crop  is  quite 
closely  confined  to  the  drier  regions  of  the  Northwest,  North 
and  South  Dakota  producing  most  of  the  broomcorn  millet 
grown  in  the  United  States.    The  chief  value  of  the  crop 
lies  in  its  ability  to  resist  drouth  and  to  mature  in  a  short 
season,  the  grain  ripening  in  from  60  to  75  days  from  the 
time  of  seeding. 

The  method  of  growing  these  millets  is  not  different  from 
that  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  other  small  grains.  They 
are  usually  sown  about  June  1,  and  are  ready  to  harvest  in 
August.  The  proper  rate  of  seeding  is  from  2  to  3  pecks  to 
the  acre.  The  crop  is  cut  with  the  mower  when  the  seed  is 
in  the  hard  dough  stage,  and  is  handled  like  hay.  When 
the  growth  is  tall  enough,  the  grain  binder  may  be  used. 
The  grain  may  be  thrashed  with  the  ordinary  thrashing 
machinery.  It  makes  a  good  feed  to  mix  with  other  grains 
for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  and  is  also  excellent  for  poultry. 
Hay  made  from  this  class  of  millet  is  much  less  valuable  than 
that  from  the  foxtail  type,  because  the  stems  are  coarse  and 
the  leaves  and  stems  are  covered  with  coarse  hairs,  so  that 
it  is  not  relished  by  stock. 

337.  Varieties.    The  varieties  of  broomcorn  millet  are 
usually  known  by  the  shape  of  the  head,  the  color  of  the 
seed,  or  the  locality  from   which   they   originally   came. 


270  FIELD  CROPS 

Among  the  best  and  most  popular  varieties  are    Kursk, 
Black  Voronezh,  and  Red  Orenburg. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

It  is  desirable  that  laboratory  specimens  of  the  plants  discussed 
in  this  chapter  or  the  thrashed  grain  or  both  plants  and  gram  be  avail- 
able for  class  use,  so  that  they  may  be  studied  and  the  members  of  the 
class  enabled  to  familiarize  themselves  with  these  little  known  or  local 
crops.  If  any  of  these  crops  are  important  in  the  locality,  careful 
studies  of  them  should  be  made  and  exercises  in  judging  given  as  sug- 
gested for  the  other  grains. 

•  i 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

417.  Rice  Culture. 

288.  Nonsaccharine  Sorghums. 

322.  Milo  as  a  Dry-Land  Grain  Crop. 

448.  Better  Grain  Sorghum  Crops. 

174.  Broomcorn. 

267.  pp.  10-13.    (Buckwheat.) 

101.  Millets. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 
Hunt's  Cereals  in  America. 

Wilcox  and  Smith's  Farmers'-  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 
Broom  Corn  and  Brooms. 


PART  III— FORAGE  CROPS 

CHAPTER  X 
INTRODUCTION 

338.  Definitions.  A  forage  crop  is  any  crop  the  leaves 
or  stems  or  both  of  which  are  used  either  green  or  dried 
for  feeding  to  stock.  The  green  plants  may  be  grazed,  when 
they  constitute  pasture,  or  they  may  be  cut  and  fed  green, 
as  a  soiling  crop;  the  practice  of  feeding  in  this  manner  is 
called  soiling.  Hay  is  the  cured  or  dried  stems  and  leaves 
of  the  finer  grasses  and  other  forage  plants.  Fodder  is  the 
cured  stems  and  leaves  of  corn,  sorghum,  or  other  coarse 
plants,  cut  just  before  maturity  and  fed  without  removing 
the  grain.  Stover  is  corn  or  other  fodder  from  which 
the  grain  has  been  removed.  Straw  is  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  grain  crops  from  which  the  seed  has  been  removed ; 
it  corresponds  to  the  stover  of  the  corn  plant.  Certain 
forage  plants,  of  wnich  corn  is  the  principal  one,  may  be  cut 
green  and  stored  in  a  tight  enclosure  built  for  the  purpose 
(a  silo),  or  occasionally  they  may  be  stacked  without  curing; 
in  either  case,  the  product  is  known  as  silage. 

A  grass  is  any  member  of  the  great  order  of  plants  known 
as  the  Gramineae,  which  includes  not  only  the  grasses  as  we 
commonly  know  them,  but  the  cereals  and  many  weedy 
plants  as  well.  In  the  narrower  sense  in  which  it  is  com- 
monly used,  the  term  includes  only  the  meadow  and  pasture 
plants  of  this  family,  though  it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  general 
term  for  any  plant  grown  in  meadows  or  pastures,  whether 


272  FIELD  CROPS 

a  true  grass  or  not.  A  legume  is  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
other  great  group  of  forage  plants,  the  Leguminoseae,  which 
includes  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  soy  bean,  and  many 
others. 

339.  Importance  of  Forage  Crops.    The  total  area  of  the 
farms  in  the  United  States,  according  to  the  Census  of  1910, 
was  878,798,325  acres,  while  the  area  of  improved  lands  was 
478,451,750  acres.    Of  this  area  of  improved  lands,  311, 
293,382  acres  were  in  harvested  crops,  and   167,158,368 
in   woodlands,    pastures,    and    orchards.     The   improved 
woodlands  are  practically  all  pastured,  while  the  acreage  in 
orchards  is  comparatively  small;  so  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
155,000,000  acres  are  used  for  pasture.    Of  the  area  in 
harvested  crops,  72,280,776  acres,  or  about  23  per  cent,  were 
devoted  to  hay  and  other  forage  production.    In  addition 
to  all  of  this,  a  very  large  part  of  the  area  not  listed  in  farms, 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  United  States,  is 
used  as  pasture,  including  the  range  lands  of  the  western 
prairies,  the  mountain  slopes  and  valleys,  and  other  lands 
not    devoted   to  farming  or  too   rough  for  improvement. 
The  total  acreage  in  harvested  forage  crops  and  improved 
pastures  was  something  like  227,000,000  acres,  as  compared 
with  98,383,000  acres  in  corn  and  93,000,000  acres  in  other 
grain  crops1. 

340.  The  Classes  of  Forage  Crops.    Practically  all  of  our 
forage  plants  belong  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  great 
families,  the  grasses  and  the  legumes.    The  more  important 
forage  grasses  are  perennial,  and  are  used  either  for  pasture 
or   meadow.    These   include   timothy,   redtop,    Kentucky 
blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  Johnson  grass,  and  many  others. 
The  annual  forage  grasses  are  used  either  as  hay  or  as  soil- 

1.    It  may  be  of  Interest  to  the  student  to  compare  the  above  percentages  with  corre- 
sponding figures  for  older  settled  countries,  as  England  and  Germany.      See  Agricultural 
'ay  H.  C.  Taylor,  and  the  Cyclopedia  pf  American  Agriculture  for  data., 


PRODUCTION  OF  FORAGE 


273 


ing  crops,  though  they  may  occasionally  be  utilized  as 
temporary  pastures.  They  include  the  millets  and  sor- 
ghums, and  also  the  cereals  that  are  sown  for  hay  production 
in  some  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  leguminous  for- 
age plants  may  also  be  divided  into  perennials  and  annuals, 
the  former  class  including  such  plants  as  alfalfa  and  the 
clovers1,  and  the  latter  the  cowpea,  soy  bean,  field  pea,  and 
vetch.  A  few  miscellaneous  forage  crops,  usually  used  for 
soiling  or  pasture  purposes,  are  included  in  the  mustard 
family,  the  Crucifereae.  These  are  rape,  kale,  cabbage, 
and  kohl-rabi.  Other  plants  are  occasionally  used  as  forage 
crops,  but  they  are  comparatively  unimportant. 

341.  Forage  Production  in  the  United  States.  The  more 
important  kinds  of  forage  are  indicated  in  Table  XIV,  which 
shows  the  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  the  different 
classes  of  forage  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1909. 
This  table  shows  that  the  most  important  class  of  forage  is 
mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay.  Next  to  this  in  acreage 
and  production  ranks  the  class  known  as  wild,  salt,  and 

Table  XIV.     Total  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  hay  and  other 
forage  in  the  United  States,  Census  o 


Acres 
harvested 

Production 
(tons) 

Value 

Timothy  alone  

14,675,375 

17,972,678 

$187,995,829 

Timothy  and  clover  mixed 
Clover  alone.  .  . 

19,536,644 
2  442  836 

24,742,868 
3  158  840 

257,215,548 
29,328,801 

Alfalfa  

4  702  230 

11,850,106 

93,020,739 

Millet  or  Hungarian  grass.. 
Other  tame  or  cultivated 
grasses  
Wild,  salt,  or  prairie  grasses 
Grains,  cut  green 

1,113,179 

4,210,470 
16,868,374 
4  254  177 

1,539,578 

4,160,656 
18,117,043 
5  277  737 

11,107,259 

44,375,185 
89,907,594 
61,231,873 

Coarse  forage  

4  093  256 

10  073  407 

47,112,764 

Root  forage  

18916 

254,533 

1,180,545 

Total  forage  

71,915,457 

97,147,446 

$822,476,137 

JRed  clover  ia  ordinarily  a  biennial. 


274  FIELD  CROPS 

prairie  hay.  Timothy  hay  without  an  admixture  of  clover 
ranked  third  in  acreage  and  production  and  second  in  value. 
Other  important  classes  of  forage  are  alfalfa  hay,  coarse 
forage  (fodder  and  silage  corn,  sorghum,  etc.),  grains  cut 
green  for  hay,  "other  tame  grasses,"  and  clover  hay.  The 
term  " other  tame  grasses"  includes  all  the  perennial  grasses 
other  than  timothy. 

The  larger  part  of  the  forage  is  produced  in  the  North 
Central  states.  This  group,  according  to  the  Census  classi- 
fication, extends  from  Michigan  and  Ohio  to  Kansas, 

8.03% 


1  €.£2% 
6.10% 

*  9ey0 

Fig.  89.     Percentage- of  the  hay  and  other  forage  crops  of  the  United  States 
produced  in  each  of  the  leading  states,  Census  of  1910. 

Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas.  This  district  includes  58  per 
cent  of  the  acreage  and  production  and  48  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  all  forage  crops  produced  in  the  United  States. 
The  leading  states  in  the  production  of  forage  are  shown 
graphically  in  Fig.  89. 

342.  Uses  of  Forage  Crops.  The  most  important  use  of 
forage  crops  is  as  bulky  feed  for  our  domestic  animals,  either 
in  succulent  or  dry  form.  Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are 
naturally  adapted  to  the  consumption  of  large  quantities  of 
forage,  and  pork  can  be  produced  most  profitably  when  hogs 
are  provided  with  abundant  pasturage.  Thus  forage  crops 


ESSENTIALS  OF  A  FORAGE  CROP  275 

are  very  important  in  our  farm  economy.  They  enter  more 
largely  into  the  production  of  beef  and  milk  in  cattle  and  of 
mutton  and  wool  in  sheep,  as  well  as  of  energy  in  horses, 
than  the  grains.  In  general,  our  farm  animals  are  produced 
and  maintained  largely  on  forage,  grains  being  used  only  at 
certain  times,  as  in  the  fattening  of  sheep  and  cattle,  when 
horses  are  at  hard  work,  or  when  cows  are  producing  milk. 

Forage  plants  are  also  important  as  soil  renovators, 
adding  large  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  decaying  roots  and  stems.  The  perennial  legumi- 
nous plants  penetrate  to  a  great  depth  and  loosen  and  aerate 
the  subsoil,  as  well  as  bring  up  plant  food  from  greater  depths 
than  annual  crops.  A  part  of  this  plant  food  remains  near 
the  surface  when  the  roots  and  stubble  decay,  or  it  is  returned 
to  the  land  in  the  form  of  manure.  In  this  and  in  other  ways, 
forage  crops  add  to  the  fertility  or  improve  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil.  Such  annual  crops  as  fodder  corn  and 
millet,  however,  draw  rather  heavily  on  the  available 
supply  of  plant  food  and  leave  little  vegetable  matter  behind, 
while  they  may  injure  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  by 
reducing  the  moisture  supply  late  in  the  season.  The  grasses 
and  clovers,  particularly  the  more  permanent  kinds,  serve 
as  cover  crops  to  prevent  the  washing  and  erosion  of  the  soil, 
thus  preventing  loss  of  fertility.  On  hillsides,  embankments, 
and  similar  locations,  they  thus  perform  a  very  valuable  work. 
Certain  kinds  also  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape 
and  to  the  home  surroundings  in  the  city  as  well  as  in  the 
country,  by  covering  the  earth  with  a  carpet  of  green  during 
the  summer  season. 

343.  Essentials  of  a  Forage  Crop.  One  of  the  most 
important  essentials  of  a  forage  crop  is  that  it  must  be 
nutritious;  that  is,  it  must  contain  a  considerable  quantity 
of  food  for  animals.  Though  the  proportion  of  nutriment  is 
less  than  in  the  grains,  forage  crops  add  bulk  to  the  ration  of 


276  FIELD  CROPS 

ruminants,  and  aid  in  the  digestion  of  more  concentrated 
feeds.  A  good  forage  crop  must  also  be  palatable,  for  no 
matter  how  nutritious  it  is,  if  it  is  not  readily  eaten  by 
animals  it  is  valueless  for  the  purpose.  Some  plants  have  a 
peculiar  and  offensive  odor,  or  the  stems  and  leaves  are 
covered  with  hairs,  or  there  is  some  other  reason  why  ani- 
mals do  not  eat  them  readily,  though  they  may  possess  every 
other  requisite  of  a  good  forage  crop.  Productiveness  is 
likewise  important,  for  it  is  necessary  that  our  forage  crops 
yield  well  in  order  to  obtain  the  largest  returns  from  a  given 
area  and  to  support  the  largest  possible  number  of  animals. 

A  good  forage  crop  must  have  good  seed  habits;  that  is, 
the  seed  must  be  produced  quite  abundantly,  be  easily  har- 
vested, and  retain  its  germinating  power  reasonably  well, 
in  order  that  it  may  not  be  too  expensive  to  justify  its  com- 
mon use.  It  must  be  easily  eradicated  when  it  is  desirable 
to  replace  it  with  some  other  crop.  A  perennial  forage 
plant  to  be  used  in  meadows  and  pastures  must  be  vigorous 
and  hardy  enough  to  cope  successfully  with  weeds  and  other 
unfavorable  conditions  of  growth,  yet  its  habit  of  growth 
must  be  such  that  it  can  be  destroyed  readily  when  the  land 
is  plowed  and  planted  to  some  other  crop.  A  few  of  our 
good  forage  grasses  are  desirable  in  every  particular  except 
this,  but  their  usefulness  is  largely  limited  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  disposing  of  them  when  desirable.  Among 
crops  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned  quack  grass,  Johnson 
grass,  and  Bermuda  grass. 

344.  Comparative  Feeding  Values  of  Different  Forage 
Crops.  The  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of 
the  more  important  forage  plants  are  shown  in  the  table 
which  follows.  These  figures  are  presented  here  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison,  and  reference  will  be  made  to  them 
from  time  to  time  in  the  pages  which  follow.  The  digestible 
nutrients  in  corn  and  in  wheat  bran  are  also  presented. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FORAGE 


Table  XV.     Total  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 
of  the  leading  forage  crops.1 


Total  dry 
matter  in 
100  pounds 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Dried  forage 
Corn  fodder 

57.8 

59.5 
86.8 
90.1 
91.1 
86.0 
89.8 
86.0 
89.5 
84.7 
90.4 
88.2 
89.5 
91.9 
90.4 
90.8 

26.4 
20.7 
20.6 
20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
23.4 
25.0 
28.3 
28.9 
29.2 
19.1 
28.2 
16.4 
24.9 
15.3 

9.1 
9.9 
11.4 
14.3 

89.4 

88.1 

2.5 
1.4 

2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.4 
2.9 
4.7 
7.6 
7.1 
10.5 
10.6 
9.2 
10.5 
0.8 
1.3 

1.4 
1.0 
0.6 
2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
2.1 
1.1 
1.3 
2.0 
2.9 
2.4 
3.6 
1.8 
,       3.1 
1.8 

1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
2.0 

7.8 
11.9 

34.6 
31.2 
42.4 
42.4 
46.9 
40.2 
45.6 
36.7 
41.5 
37.8 
34.9 
40.9 
39.3 
40.5 
35.2 
39.5 

14.2 
11.9 
11.6 
10.1 
19.7 
19.9 
14.1 
12.4 
13.4 
15.9 
13.6 
9.1 
12.1 
8.7 
11.0 
6.9 

5.5 
6.4 
8.1 
8.2 

66.8 
42.0 

1.2 
0.7 
1.3 
1.4 
1.0 
0.7 
0.8 
1.7 
1.5 
1.8 
1.2 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
0.4 
0.8 

0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 
0.2 
0.5 
0.3 

0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 

4.3 
2.5 

Corn  stover 

Timothy  hay 

Orchard  grass        .    ... 

Redtop  

Kentucky  blue  grass  .... 
Johnson  grass  

Oat  hay  

Oat  and  pea  hay  

Red  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Soy  bean 

Cowpea.       

Alfalfa  

Wheat  straw  

Oat  straw  

Green  forage 
Corn  silage 

Fodder  corn 

Sorghum 

Pasture  grass 

Kentucky  blue  grass.  .  .  . 
Timothy  

Rye  forage      

Oat  forage  

Bermuda  grass  

Hungarian  millet  

Red  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa...    . 

Cowpea  

Soy  bean  

Field  pea  

Roots,  etc. 
Mangel  

Turnip  

Rutabaga  

Rape  

Concentrates 
Corn 

Wheat  bran.. 

i  Table  adapted  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


27$  FIELD  CROPS 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

271.  Forage-Crop  Practices  in  Western  Oregon  and  Western  Wash- 
ington. 

331.  Forage  Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  303-311. 
Beal's  Grasses  of  North  America. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  35-83. 
Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  1-274. 
Shaw's  Forage  Crops. 
Shaw's  Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo. 
Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  1-12. 
Voorhees'  Forage  Crops,  pp.  1-45. 
Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  MAKING  OF  A  MEADOW 

345.  The  Essentials  of  a  Good  Meadow.    One  of  the 

first  essentials  of  a  good  meadow  is  that  it  be  composed  of 
plants  that  cure  readily  into  hay,  with  as  little  loss  as  possible 
of  leaves  and  other  tender  parts.  Slowness  in  curing  is 
likely  to  result  in  moldy  or  spoiled  hay,  while  those  plants 
which  become  brittle  in  curing  break  up  readily  in  handling 
and  a  large  part  of  the  best  food  material  is  lost.  The 
meadow  should  produce  a  good  yield  of  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious hay.  The  plants  which  compose  it  should  be  thick 
enough  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  prevent  the  stems  from 
growing  so  coarse  that  they  are  not  eaten  readily  by  stock. 
They  should  form  a  smooth,  even  turf  rather  than  a  bunchy 
one,  as  the  bunches  will  soon  become  high  enough  to  inter- 
fere with  haying  machinery.  The  field  should  be  fairly 
level  and  free  from  stones  and  other  obstructions,  so  that  the 
hay  crop  can  be  harvested  readily  and  economically. 

346.  The  Formation  of  the  Meadow.    About  one-fourth 
of  the  land  from  which  a  hay  crop  is  annually  harvested  is 
native  meadow  on  which  little  or  no  attempt  at  improvement 
has  been  made.    The  Census  of  1910  reports  about  seven- 
teen million  acres  of  wild  grasses  cut  for  hay.    This  native 
meadow  is  mostly  in  the  more  newly  settled  portions  of  the 
West.    In  the  Central  and  Eastern  states  it  has  largely 
been  replaced  by  the  tame  grasses  and  clovers,  a  large  acre- 
age of  which  is  seeded  every  year  for  meadows  and  pastures. 
While  specific  directions  for  preparing  the  land  and  seeding 
will  be  given  in  the  discussion  of  the  more  important  meadow 


280  FIELD  CROPS 

plants,  some  of  the  general  principles  which  apply  to  the 
establishment  of  a  meadow  can  best  be  stated  here. 

The  land  should  be  well  prepared.  Whether  the  grass 
seed  is. sown  by  itself  or  with  a  nurse  crop,  good  preparation  is 
essential  to  success.  The  seeds  of  all  the  grasses  are  small 
and  many  of  them  may  fail  to  germinate  in  a  poorly-pre- 
pared seed  bed,  where  they  may  not  be  covered  at  all  or  may 
be  covered  too  deeply.  A  firm,  moist,  mellow  seed  bed 
with  a  fine,  well-prepared  surface,  supplies  the  best  condi- 
tions for  germination  and  early  growth.  A  smooth  surface 
is  also  of  material  value  when  the  crop  is  harvested,  because 
haying  machinery  of  all  kinds  works  more  easily  and  effec- 
tively on  smooth  ground  than  on  rough.  A  well-prepared 
seed  bed  requires  less  seed  than  a  poorly-prepared  one,  for 
more  of  the  seed  will  germinate. 

The  land  should  be  fertile.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to 
produce  a  profitable  crop  of  hay  on  poor  land.  Most  soils 
contain  enough  fertility  to  produce  good  hay  crops  if  the 
proper  selection  of  grasses  is  made,  but  usually  the  addition 
of  manure  will  materially  increase  the  yield.  The  time  when 
the  manure  may  be  applied  to  best  advantage  depends  on  the 
time  of  seeding  and  whether  the  grass  seed  is  sown  with  or 
without  a  nurse  crop.  When  a  nurse  crop  is  used  which  is 
likely  to  lodge  from  manuring,  it  is  better  to  apply  the 
manure  to  some  previous  crop,  or  to  delay  its  application 
till  after  the  nurse  crop  is  removed.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  meadow  grasses  are  sown  alone,  a  light  dressing  of 
manure  may  be  plowed  under  with  good  results  when  the 
land  is  being  prepared  for  seeding.  It  may  also  be  applied 
as  a  top  dressing  after  the  grass  seed  has  been  sown,  or  any 
time  later  when  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  growing  crop. 

347.  Sowing  in  Mixtures.  A  mixture  of  grasses  is  fre- 
quently better  than  any  one  kind  alone.  There  are  excep- 


GROWING  GRASSES  IN  MIXTURES  281 

tions  to  this  rule,  as  when  hay  is  grown  for  a  market  that 
demands  straight  timothy  or  clover  or  alfalfa.  Alfalfa 
ordinarily  does  better  when  sown  alone  than  with  any  other 
plant.  With  most  of  the  grasses,  however,  a  mixture  adds 
to  the  yield  and  palatability  of  the  hay  crop.  The  yield  is 
increased  because  the  roots  of  the  different  plants  penetrate 
to  varying  depths,  so  that  more  food  material  is  available  for 
all  than  for  any  one.  At  the  same  time,  the  portions  above 
ground  grow  to  different  heights,  so  that  they  have  more 
space  to  spread  when  in  a  mixture  than  when  growing  alone. 
The  palatability  of  the  product  is  increased,  for  animals  like 
variety  in  their  food.  Care  should  be  taken  in  selecting 
the  different  plants  to  make  up  the  mixture  so  that  all  will 
be  ready  to  cut  for  hay  at  the  same  time.  Red  clover  and 
timothy  do  not  make  the  best  mixture,  as  red  clover  is  ready 
to  cut  earlier  than  timothy,  and  if  left  till  the  timothy  is 
ready,  the  clover  stems  become  woody  and  many  of  the 
leaves  drop  off.  Mammoth  clover,  which  is  later  than  red 
clover,  is  much  better  in  a  mixture  with  timothy. 

348.  Preparing  the  Land.  The  .desirability  of  a  well- 
prepared  seed  bed  has  already  been  stated.  The  method  of 
preparing  this  seed  bed  varies  with  the  soil,  the  locality,  the 
season,  and  the  preceding  crop.  A  heavy  soil  usually  requires 
more  work  to  get  it  into  good  tilth  for  seeding  than  a  loose, 
sandy  one.  Fertilization,  either  with  barnyard  manure  or 
commercial  fertilizers,  may  be  necessary  before  seeding  on 
the  poorer  lands  of  the  South.  If  the  land  was  plowed  and 
put  in  good  condition  for  the  crop  immediately  preceding, 
some  of  this  work  may  be  omitted  before  sowing  to  grass. 

The  usual  practice  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North 
Central  states,  where  most  of  the  tame  grass  meadows  are 
located,  is  to  sow  the  grass  seed  with  some  grain  crop.  This 
may  be  winter  wheat  in  the  region  where  that  crop  is  grown, 


282  FIELD  CROPS 

or  it  may  be  spring  wheat,  oats,  or  barley.  More  attention 
than  usual  should  be  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  the  land 
when  grasses  are  to  be  sown  with  these  grains,  particularly 
in  the  way  of  fining  the  surface  soil  before  the  seed  is  sown. 
When  the  grasses  are  to  be  sown  with  winter  wheat,  the  land 
should  be  plowed  some  weeks  previous  to  seeding  time  and 
the  seed  bed  prepared  with  the  disk  and  smoothing  harrows. 
If  any  of  these  grain  crops  follow  corn  which  has  been  kept 
clean  of  weeds,  a  good  seed  bed  can  be  prepared  by  disking 
two  or  three  times  and  then  harrowing.  The  corn  rows 
should  be  leveled  as  much  as  possible  in  preparing  the  land. 
If  the  ground  is  to  be  plowed,  deep  plowing  when  the  soil 
breaks  up  readily  is  desirable.  Plowing  when  the  soil  is  in 
proper  condition  reduces  the  labor  necessary  to  obtain  a 
good  seed  bed;  fall  plowing  is  usually  preferable  in  the  North. 
Deep  plowing  increases  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the 
soil,  and  also  increases  the  quantity  of  available  plant  food 
by  making  the  soil  more  easily  penetrable  by  the  roots. 

349.  Selection  of  the  Seed.  The  sowing  of  good  seed 
is  fully  as  important  in  forming  a  meadow  as  in  the  planting 
of  any  of  the  grain  crops.  The  seed  should  be  true  to  name, 
of  strong  germination,  and  free  from  noxious  weed  seeds. 
The  seeds  of  some  of  the  inferior  grasses  closely  resemble 
those  of  some  of  the  important  ones;  for  example,  Canada 
blue  grass  seed  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
but  Canada  blue  grass  is  of  much  less  value.  When  there 
is  any  doubt  about  the  purity  of  the  seed,  a  sample  should 
be  submitted  to  the  nearest  seed  laboratory  for  examination. 
The  experiment  stations  usually  make  examinations  of  this 
kind  free  of  charge.  With  a  simple  hand  lens  and  samples 
of  good  seed,  or  good  illustrations  of  them  such  as  are  easily 
obtainable,  examinations  for  purity  may  readily  be  made 


TESTING  THE  GERMINATION  283 

in  school  or  at  home1.  Freedom  from  weed  seeds  is  equally 
as  important  as  freedom  from  undesirable  mixtures,  as  many 
of  the  worst  weeds  are  often  introduced  in  grass  and  clover 
seed. 

350.  Germination  Test.  As  the  germination  of 
grass  seed  is  often  low,  it  is  well  to  make  a  germ- 
ination test  of  the  seed  before  sowing  or  before 
purchasing  it  in  quantity.  A  simple  germinator  may 
be  made  from  two  plates  and  two  pieces  of  blotting  paper 
or  cloth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90.  The  cloths  should  be  dampened 
and  a  definite  number  of  seeds,  one  hundred  or  two  hundred, 
placed  between  them.  The  second  plate  should  then  be  put 
on  as  a  cover  and  the 
germinator  set  in  a 
moderately  warm 
place,  where  there  will 
not  be  any  marked 
change  of  temperature 
during  the  day  or 

night.     The  germinator  Fig.  90.     Plate  germinator  for  testing 

should     be     examined 

occasionally  to  see  that  the  cloths  do  not  dry  out.  In 
about  ten  days,  the  seeds  which  show  strong  germi- 
nation should  be  counted  and  the  percentage  of  germination 
figured.  If  it  is  low,  the  seed  should  not  be  sown  at  all,  or 
the  rate  of  seeding  should  be  increased  sufficiently  to  supply 
the  proper  quantity  of  germinable  seed.  No  sample  which 
shows  a  low  percentage  of  germination  or  any  considerable 
proportion  of  impurities  should  be  purchased.  It  does  not 
pay  to  buy  any  but  the  best  quality  of  grass  and  clover  seed. 

iFarmers*  Bulletin  428,  "Testing  Farm  Seeds  in  the  Home  and  in  the 
Rural  School,"  gives  directions  for  testing  all  the  more  important  forage  crop  and 
grain  seeds,  with  illustrations  of  these  seeds  and  the  more  common  impurities  which 
are  found  in  them.  Farmers'  Bulletin  382,  "The  Adulteration  of  Forage- 
Plant  Seeds,"  is  also  a  valuable  aid  to  the  making  of  purity  tests. 


284  FIELD  CROPS 

Cheap  seed  is  nearly  always  low  in  germination  or  contains 
large  quantities  of  foreign  seeds. 

351.  Time  to  Sow.    In  the  Northern  states,  the  grasses 
are  usually  sown  in  the  spring  with  the  spring  grains.     In  the 
winter  wheat  belt,  timothy  is  generally  sown  in  the  fall  with 
the  wheat  and  clover  is  sown  very  early  the  following  spring. 
Better    results    may    often    be    obtained  by    sowing  the 
timothy  and  clover  together  without  a  nurse  crop  in  August 
or  early  in  September,  after  winter  wheat  has  been  harvested. 
The   land   can   be   plowed   and   put   in   good    condition 
immediately  after  the  wheat  is  cut,  and  a  good  seed  bed  will 
then  be  ready  for  seeding  at  the  proper  time.    The  objection 
to  this  method  farther  north  is  that  the  clover  is  very  likely 
to  kill  out  during  the  winter  if  not  sown  till  late  in  the  season. 
In  the  South,  fall  seeding  of  grasses  is  usually  to  be  preferred. 

352.  Sowing  with  or  without  a  Nurse  Crop.    While  the 
plan  of  sowing  grass  seed  with  a  grain  crop  is  a  very  common 
one,  the  results  which  are  obtained  do  not  always  justify 
its  use.     Instead  of  being  a  protection  to  the  young  plants, 
the  grain  crop  is  quite  often  the  reverse,  taking  moisture  from 
the  soil  when  it  is  most  needed.    When  the  grain  crop  is 
removed,  the  young  and  tender  plants  which  have  previously 
been  shaded  are  exposed  to  the  full  effect  of  the  sun  and  wind 
and  may  be  killed  by  a  few  hot  days  immediately  following 
the  harvesting  of  the  grain.    Little  or  no  forage  is  usually 
produced  by  the  new  meadow  the  first  fall  after  spring  seed- 
ing and  the  hay  crop  produced  the  following  year  from  August 
seeding  is  often  fully  as  good  as,  if  not  better  than,  that  pro- 
duced from  seed  sown  the  previous  spring  with  a  nurse  crop. 
With  alfalfa  and  some  other  crops  a  nurse  crop  is  seldom  used. 

353.  Manner  of  Seeding.    Grass  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  by  hand,  with  any  of  the  ordinary  broadcast 
seeders,  or  with  a  special  attachment  to  the  grain  drill. 


SOWING  GRASS  SEED  285 

The  machine  which  is  perhaps  most  generally  satisfactory  for 
this  work  is  the  wheelbarrow  seeder.  This  gives  an  even 
distribution  of  the  seed  over  the  entire  area,  something  which 
is  not  always  easily  obtained  with  most  types  of  broadcast 
seeders.  When  sown  with  any  of  the  broadcast  seeders,  it 
is  customary  to  cover  the  seed  by  a  light  harrowing.  The 
spike-tooth  harrow  is  usually  used  for  this  work,  though  a 
brush  harrow  is  sometimes  employed.  When  clover  is  sown 
on  winter  wheat  in  the  spring,  it  is  not  usually  covered  at 
all,  the  alternate  thawing  and  freezing  of  the  soil  and  the 
beating  of  the  spring  rains  being  depended  on  to  cover  the 
seed  sufficiently  for  germination.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  seed  is  not  covered  too  deep  when  sown  with  the 
grain  drill. 

354.  Depth  to  Cover  the  Seed.    The  depth  to  which 
grass  seed  should  be  covered  is  important.    With  small 
seeds  like  those  of  the  grasses  and  clovers,  the  danger  is  in 
covering  too  much  rather  than  not  enough.    In  dry  seasons 
or  in  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  scanty,  deeper  covering  is 
necessary  than  under  ordinary  conditions,  in  order  to  reach 
moist  earth.    Seed  may  be  covered  to  a  greater  depth  in 
sandy  soils  than  in  those  of  a  clayey  nature.    The  proper 
depth  of  covering  may  often  be  obtained  by  rolling  the  field 
after  the  seed  is  sown,  though  a  light  harrowing  is  usually 
more  effective.    Covering  to  a  depth  of  from  one-quarter  to 
one  inch  will  generally  produce  good  results,  though  on  sandy 
soils  or  in  dry  regions  a  greater  depth  of  covering  may  be 
necessary.    The  seeds  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  many 
other  grasses  often  germinate  when  they  are  not  covered  at 
all  except  by  the  natural  movement  of  the  soil  particles. 

355.  Rate  of  Seeding.    Definite  statements  with  regard 
to  the  proper  rate  of  seeding  will  be  made  in  the  special  dis- 
cussions of  the  various  important  hay  crops,  so  only  a  few 


286  FIELD  CROPS 

general  rules  will  be  given  here.  In  mixtures,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  sow  enough  of  the  more  important  grasses  to  give 
a  full  stand  if  the  less  important  ones  fail.  The  total  quantity 
of  seed  in  a  mixture  is  usually  greater  than  if  any  one  of  the 
constituents  were  sown  alone.  When  clover  and  timothy 
are  sown  together,  nearly  as  much  seed  of  each  is  sown  as 
when  either  is  sown  alone.  The  rate  of  seeding  must  be 
increased  on  poorly-prepared  land,  to  allow  for  the  consider- 
able number  of  seeds  that  will  fail  to  germinate.  When 
sowing  a  field  that  is  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  seed, 
less  seed  is  used  than  when  sowing  for  hay  production.  More 
seed  is  usually  sown  on  we  land  than  on  dry,  and  on  rich 
land  than  on  poor. 

356.  The  Important  Meadow  Plants.    The  most  impor- 
tant plants  in  American  meadows  are  timothy  and  red 
clover.     Alfalfa  is  the  great  hay  plant  of  the  West,  and  its 
cultivation  is  rapidly  spreading  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
On  wet  lands,  redtop  is  an  important  grass,  and  alsike  clover 
largely  replaces  red  clover.     In  the  South,  Johnson  grass  is 
the  most  common  hay  grass.     In  the  Northwest,  brome 
grass  occupies  a  prominent  place.     The  native  meadows  of 
the  West  are  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  species  of  native 
grasses,  among  the  more  important  of  which  are  the  wheat 
grasses.    A  few  others  are  used  in  a  limited  way  in  some 
sections  of  the  country,  but  the  six  or  seven  plants  named 
above  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  hay  which  is  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States.    These  will  be  discussed  at 
length  in  the  succeeding  pages. 

357.  The  Care  of  the  Meadow.    To  get  the  best  results 
from  a  meadow,  something  more  is  necessary  than  to  go  out 
at  the  proper  time  and  harvest  the  hay  crop.    The  length 
of  time  a  field  is  to  remain  in  meadow  influences  to  some 
extent  the  treatment  which  is  given  to  it.    The  ordinary 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  MEADOW         28? 

practice  in  this  country,  except  with  alfalfa,  is  to  cut  but  one 
or  two  crops  of  hay  and  then  break  up  the  sod  for  some  annual 
crop  such  as  corn,  potatoes,  or  small  grain.  Often  it  is 
pastured  for  from  one  to  three  years  and  then  plowed  and 
planted  to  some  one  of  these  crops.  Little  attention  is  given 
to  the  maintenance  of  permanent  meadows  except  on  land 
that  is  very  wet  or  is  otherwise  undesirable  for  cultivation, 
though  in  England  and  some  of  the  other  European  countries 
lands  are  kept  continually  in  grass  for  many  years. 

Some  attention  may  well  be  given  to  the  meadow  during 
the  first  season  in  the  matter  of  keeping  down  weeds  and  pre- 
venting them  from  seeding.  Fields  that  are  seeded  to  grass 
with  a  nurse  crop  in  the  spring  often  grow  up  to  ragweed  and 
other  pests  after  the  nurse  crop  is  removed.  These  weeds 
should  be  prevented  from  seeding  by  going  over  the  field 
with  a  mower  about  the  time  they  begin  to  bloom,  cutting 
the  stubble  rather  high  so  as  not  to  expose  the  roots  of  the 
young  grass  plants  to  the  full  glare  of  the  sun's  rays.  Pas- 
turing new  seeding  is  not  often  advisable,  though  it  is  a  very 
common  practice.  If  a  rank,  heavy  growth  is  made  in  the 
fall,  it  can  be  pastured  to  some  extent  without  injury,  but 
the  quantity  of  forage  produced  is  usually  small,  and  the 
hay  crop  of  the  succeeding  year  is  often  reduced  materially 
by  fall  pasturing.  Enough  top  growth  should  be  left  to  give 
ample  protection  to  the  roots  during  the  winter.  The  fall 
growth  of  leaves  also  furnishes  a  supply  of  food  material  to 
the  roots,  which  is  stored  over  winter  and  used  by  the  early 
growth  of  the  plant  the  following  spring.  If  the  meadow  is 
closely  pastured  in  the  fall,  this  supply  of  plant  food  is  less- 
ened, with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  growth  the  next 
year. 

If  the  stand  of  grass  is  thin  in  the  spring  following  seeding, 
it  can  sometimes  be  thickened  and  the  yield  of  hay  increased 


288  FIELD  CROPS 

by  scattering  grass  seed  over  the  field  and  covering  it  with 
the  smoothing  harrow.  If  the  field  is  to  be  kept  in  meadow 
for  two  years,  a  top-dressing  of  manure  or  of  commercial 
fertilizer  in  the  fall  or  winter  will  materially  increase  the 
yield  the  following  season.  If  commercial  fertilizer  of  a 
readily  available  nature  is  used,  it  should  be  put  on  in  the 
spring  rather  than  in  the  fall,  or  much  of  it  will  be  lost  by 
leaching  during  the  winter.  Disking  or  harrowing  grass  lands 
is  sometimes  advocated  to  induce  a  more  vigorous  growth, 
but  this  treatment  is  unnecessary  on  meadows  that  are 
maintained  for  only  one  or  two  years. 

358.  Use  of  the  Aftermath.  "Aftermath"  is  the  term 
usually  applied  to  the  growth  made  by  a  meadow  after  the 
main  crop  of  hay  has  been  removed.  This  aftermath  is 
utilized  in  various  ways,  for  the  production  of  hay,  pasture, 
seed,  and  green  manure.  The  quantity  of  hay  produced  by 
the  aftermath  is  usually  much  smaller  than  the  main  crop. 
The  aftermath  is  more  generally  utilized  as  pasture  than  for 
the  production  of  hay,  because  the  regular  pastures  often 
fail  in  the  late  summer,  and  the  extra  pasturage  is  needed. 
If  the  meadow  is  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  hay  the 
following  year,  the  aftermath  should  not  be  pastured  too 
closely.  The  second  crop  of  clover  is  often  cut  for  seed, 
because  conditions  are  more  generally  favorable  for  seed 
production  then  than  earlier  in  the  season.  If  the  meadow 
is  to  be  broken  up  and  put  into  some  other  crop  the  follow- 
ing year,  the  aftermath  may  often  be  used  to  best  advantage 
by  turning  it  under  in  the  fall  to  add  vegetable  matter  to  the 
soil.  Pasturing  the  meadow  in  the  fall  and  then  turning 
under  the  sod  makes  a  double  use  of  the  fall  growth,  for 
much  of  the  fertility  is  returned  to  the  land  in  the  manure, 
but  the  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  is  slightly  reduced. 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  MEADOWS  289 

359.  Permanent   Meadows   and   Their   Improvement. 

The  short-term  rotation  is  in  such  general  use  in  this  country 
that  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  formation  of  per- 
manent meadows,  and  there  is  considerable  question  whether 
they  are  generally  desirable.  On  lands  which  are  too  wet 
for  cultivation,  permanent  meadows  may  often  be  estab- 
lished advantageously,  but  elsewhere,  with  the  exception  of 
alfalfa  meadows,  two  years  is  about  the  longest  time  for 
which  maximum  yields  can  be  expected.  Insect  pests  and 
plant  diseases  can  be  combated  much  more  effectively  in 
a  short  rotation  than  in  one  in  which  any  one  crop  occupies 
the  land  for  a  considerable  period,  and  as  these  troubles 
are  generally  present,  they  furnish  strong  reasons  against  the 
maintenance  of  permanent  meadows.  Where  it  is  desirable 
to  maintain  a  field  in  meadow  for  a  number  of  years,  special 
care  .should  be  given  to  the  selection  of  long-lived  grasses. 
Disking  or  harrowing  every  second  or  third  year  to  prevent 
the  field  from  becoming  "  sod-bound, "  applying  well  rotted 
manure,  and  reseeding  the  bare  or  thin  spots,  will  result  in 
profitable  yields. 

360.  Place  in  the  Rotation.    The  hay  crop  usually  occu- 
pies a  position  following  a  small  grain  and  preceding  a  culti- 
vated crop.    A  common  rotation  in  the  Central  states  con- 
sists of  two  years  of  corn,  one  of  oats,  and  one  or  two  of 
grass.    The  meadow  may  then  be  utilized  as  pasture  for  a 
year  or  two  before  it  is  again  broken  up  for  corn,  or  corn  may 
immediately  follow.    Where  winter  wheat  is  an  important 
crop,  it  may  immediately  follow  the  breaking  up  of  a  meadow 
and  in  turn  be  followed  by  corn.     In  this  case,  the  land  is 
again  seeded  to  grass,  with  a  second  wheat  crop  following  the 
corn.    A  slightly  different  arrangement  of  this  rotation  is 
corn,  wheat,  wheat,  grass.    If  both  wheat  and  oats  are  grown, 
the  rotation  may  be  corn,  oats,  corn,  wheat,  grass,  or  the 
order  of  the  wheat  and  oats  crops  may  be  reversed,  though 


290  FIELD  CROPS 

wheat  is  the  better  nurse  crop.  In  Maine  and  some  of  the 
other  important  potato-growing  sections,  the  common  rota- 
tion is  potatoes,  oats,  hay.  This  hay  crop  is  usually  clover; 
a  fuller  discussion  of  this  rotation  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
on  that  crop  (Sec.  465).  In  the  South  and  West,  perennial 
hay  crops  other  than  alfalfa  are  so  seldom  grown  that  defi- 
nite rotations  have  not  been  devised. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

It  is  suggested  that  samples  of  seed  of  the  common  forage  grasses 
grown  in  the  vicinity  be  obtained  and  examinations  made  of  them 
for  purity  and  germination.  As  soon  as  the  seeds  of  the  common 
grasses  become  familiar,  mixtures  containing  two,  three,  or  more  of 
them  may  be  separated  into  their  component  parts.  At  this  time,  all 
that  need  be  done  would  be  to  separate  the  weed  seeds,  chaff,  etc.,  from 
the  good  seed  without  any  attempt  to  identify  the  weeds.  Later,  the 
different  weed  seeds  might  be  identified.  Several  laboratory  periods 
may  well  be  devoted  to  this  work.  The  student  should  also  familiarize 
himself  with  the  common  grasses,  clovers,  and  weeds  growing  in 
meadows  in  the  neighborhood. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  434-455. 

Beal's  Grasses  of  North  America. 

Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  1-200. 

Shaw's  Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  1-48,  403-434. 

Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  14-55. 

Whig's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 


CHAPTER  XII 
HAY  AND  HAY-MAKING 

361.  Principal  Hay  Plants.    The  principal  perennial  hay 
plants  in  the  United  States  are  timothy  and  clover  in  the 
North  Central  and  Northeastern  states,  Johnson  grass  in 
the  South,  and  alfalfa  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Oklahoma,  and 
the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  states.    Among  other 
perennial  hay  plants  which  are  grown  in  more  or  less  limited 
areas  are  redtop,  orchard  grass,  brome  grass,  western  wheat 
grass,  and  alsike  clover.    Numerous  annual  plants  are  also 
grown  for  hay,  including  foxtail  millet,  field  peas,  cowpeas, 
soy  beans,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  hairy  vetch.    Any 
of  these  plants  may  be  grown  alone,  or  they  may  be  grown 
in  various  mixtures  of  two  or  more. 

362.  Production  of  Hay  in  the  United   States.    The 
greater  part  of  the  hay  grown  in  the  United  States  is  pro- 
duced in  the  Northeastern  and  North  Central  states.    The 
Western  states  are  coming  to  be  of  considerable  importance 
as  producers  of  hay,  largely  through  the  general  use  of  alfalfa 
on  irrigated  land,  with  its  high  yield  per  acre.     New  York 
produces  nearly  one-tenth  of  the  annual  hay  crop  of  the 
country,  while  New  York,  Iowa,  and  Pennsylvania,  the  three 
leading  states,  show  an  average  annual  yield  of  slightly  more 
than  one-fourth  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  United  States. 
The  production  of  hay  is,  however,  more  generally  distrib- 
uted than  that  of  any  of  the  cereal  crops  except  corn. 

The  annual  production  of  hay  in  the  United  States  for 
the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1911,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics,  averaged  60,737,000  tons,  grown  on  42,557,000 


292  FIELD  CROPS 

acres  and  valued  at  $624,664,000.  This  is  slightly  more  than 
the  average  annual  value  of  either  the  cotton  or  the  wheat 
crop  for  a  like  period,  though  both  these  crops  have  some- 
times exceeded  hay  in  value. 

The  heaviest  production  of  tame  hay  is  in  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  Central  states.  When  all  hay 
and  other  forage  crops  are  included  in  the  statistics  (Sec.  341), 
Iowa  is  shown  to  surpass  New  York,  while  Pennsylvania 


9.76K 


Fig.  91.     Percentage  of  total  forage  crop  of  the  United  States  produced  in  each 
of  the  leading  states,   1902-1911. 

drops  from  third  to  eleventh  place  in  production.  Minne- 
sota, on  account  of  her  large  production  of  wild  hay,  takes 
third  place,  while  Kansas  and  Nebraska  follow  closely. 
Both  Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  large  producers  of  wild  hay 
and  of  coarse  forage,  as  well  as  of  alfalfa. 

363.  Acre  Yield  and  Value.    The  heaviest  yields  of  hay 
to  the  acre  are  obtained  in  the  irrigated  states  of  the  West 


THE  TIME  TO  CUT  HAY  293 

and  Southwest.  The  principal  hay  crop  grown  in  these 
states  is  alfalfa,  and  several  cuttings  are  made  each  year. 
The  mean  acre  yield  of  hay  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to 
1911  in  Arizona  was  3.11  tons,  in  Utah  2.93  tons,  and  in 
Idaho  2.92  tons.  In  the  states  of  largest  total  production 
the  mean  annual  yield  ranges  from  1J4  to  1J^  tons  to  the 
acre.  The  same  range  is  quite  general  in  the  South.  Much 
larger  yields  are  produced  when  special  care  is  given  to  the 
hay  crop. 

The  mean  acre  value  of  hay  for  the  ten  years  from  1902  to 
1911  was  higher  in  Arizona  than  in  any  other  state,  $38.87, 
or  about  SI 2. 50  a  ton.  The  lowest  acre  value  was  that  of 
South  Dakota,  $6.29.  The  acre  value  in  New  York  was 
$15.64  and  in  Iowa,  $10.  The  difference  between  these  two 
states  was  due  entirely  to  the  higher  price  per  ton  in  New 
York,  as  the  acre  yield  is  less  than  that  of  Iowa. 

364.  Time  to  Cut.  For  the  best  quality  of  hay,  the  crop 
should  be  cut  when  the  plants  are  in  bloom.  The  grasses 
usually  increase  in  weight  and  in  total  feeding  value  up  to 
the  time  the  seed  begins  to  ripen,  but  they  decrease  in 
palatability  and  digestibility  after  the  blooming  stage  is 
past.  Probably  the  largest  quantity  of  digestible  food 
material  can  be  obtained  from  hay  made  up  largely  of  the 
grasses  if  they  are  not  cut  until  about  the  time  they  go  out 
of  bloom.  On  the  other  hand,  the  clovers  and  alfalfa  must 
be  cut  somewhat  earlier,  or  many  of  the  leaves  will  be  lost 
in  curing  and  the  feeding  value  will  be  considerably  decreased. 
When  red  clover  and  timothy  are  grown  together,  the  clover 
comes  into  bloom  some  days  earlier  than  the  timothy,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  crop  when  the  clover  is  rather  mature 
and  before  the  timothy  has  reached  its  best  state.  Other- 
wise, the  decrease  in  value  of  the  clover  will  more  than  equal 
any  gain  there  may  be  from  the  timothy.  Where  the 


294  FIELD  CROPS 

acreage  to  be  harvested  is  large,  it  is  necessary  to  begin 
cutting  before  the  crop  has  reached  the  best  stage  in  order 
to  complete  the  work  before  a  part  of  it  becomes  overripe. 
Whenever  possible,  hay  should  be  cut  when  there  is 
prospect  of  good  drying  weather  until  it  can  be  put  in  the 
mow  or  stack.  Conditions  frequently  make  this  difficult, 
but  the  best  quality  of  hay  can  only  be  made  when  there  is 


Fig.  92.  A  good  crop  of  hay  ready  td  be  hauled  to  the  barn.  The  hay 
loader  which  takes  the  hay  from  the  swath  or  windrow  is  generally  used  in  large 
meadows.  It  is  not  then  necessary  to  place  the  hay  in  cocks  as  shown  here. 

the  least  possible  exposure  to  the  weather.  Hay  that  is 
fairly  mature  can  often  be  cut  in  the  morning  and  put  in 
the  stack  or  mow  in  the  afternoon.  This  avoids  discolora- 
tion from  dew  and  consequent  lowering  in  market  value. 
The  same  result  can  often  be  obtained  by  cutting  late  in 
the  afternoon,  so  that  the  grass  is  still  green  and  full  of 
moisture  when  the  dew  falls.  It  will  not  then  be  discolored, 


MAKING  HAY 


295 


296  FIELD  CROPS 

and  will  cure  earlier  in  the  day  than  hay  that  is  not  cut  till 
the  following  morning. 

365.  Method  of  Cutting.     Practically  all  the  hay  in  the 
United  States  is  now  cut  with  the  mower,  though  small 
acreages  of  swampy  or  rocky  land  in  New  England  and  else- 
where are  cut  with  the  scythe.     The  mowers  in  ordinary  use 
cut  swaths  from  5  to  7  feet  wide.     One-horse  mowers  are 
made  which  cut  a  3J/2  or  4-foot  swath,  but  usually  two 
horses  are  used  with  a  machine  cutting  5  or  6  feet  in  width. 
Cutting  a  swath  more  than  6  feet  wide  is  hard  work  for 
two  horses,  and  it  is  also  difficult  to  keep  long  cutter-bars 
in  line. 

366.  Curing.    The  length  of  time  that  is  required  to  cure 
a  crop  sufficiently  for  storing  depends  on  the  stage  of  maturity 
of  the  crop,  the  particular  plant  or  plants  which  are  to  be 
made  into  hay,  the  yield,  and  the  weather  conditions.    No 
general  rules  can  be  laid  down.     The  desirable  thing  is  to 
get  the  hay  dry  enough  for  storing  with  the  least  possible 
loss  of  food  value  and  palatability.     The  food  value  may  be 
reduced  by  washing  by  rains,  by  bleaching  from  rains  or 
dews,  by  the  loss  of  leaves  and  other  tender  parts  when  the 
crop  is  too  mature  or  too  dry  for  handling,  and  by  the  mold- 
ing or  rotting  of  the  hay.     Curing  in  the  windrow  or  in  the 
cock  is  desirable  in  order  to  prevent  much  loss  of  leaves, 
particularly  in  clover  and  alfalfa  hay.     Clover  hay  should 
not  be  handled  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary  after 
it  is  cured. 

The  use  of  modern  machinery,  such  as  side-delivery  rakes 
and  the  hay  loader,  does  away  entirely  with  the  cock,  for  the 
hay  is  taken  up  directly  from  the  swath  or  the  small  windrow. 
This  plan  is  often  necessary  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of 
labor,  but  it  is  generally  followed  at  a  sacrifice  in  the  quality 
of  the  hay.  Curing  partially  in  the  swath  and  then  raking 


HAYING  MACHINERY 


297 


it  into  cocks,  which  should  be  rounded  up  with  a  fork  if 
there  is  danger  of  rain,  will  give  the  best  quality  of  hay.  If 
hay  of  particularly  high  quality  is  desired  in  humid  sections, 
the  cocks  should  be  covered  with  canvas  covers. 

367.  Haying  Machinery.  Haying  tools  form  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  equipment  of  the  farm.  There  is  the 
mower,  with  which  to  cut  the  grass;  the  tedder,  for  stirring 
heavy  hay  in  the  swath  to  facilitate  its  curing;  the  rake, 
either  of  the  hand-dump  or  self-dump  type  to  gather  the 


Fig.  94.  Putting  hay  into  the  mow  by  -means  of  slings.  In  this  way,  a 
load  of  hay  can  be  put  into  the  barn  in  a  few  minutes.  This  barn  has  a  large 
mow  capacity. 

cured  hay  into  windrows  and  then  into  cocks,  or  the  side- 
delivery  type  which  makes  a  continuous  windrow,  thus 
facilitating  the  use  of  the  hay  loader;  the  hay  loader,  for 
taking  the  hay  from  the  swath  or  windrow  and  depositing 
it  on  the  wagon;  and  various  arrangements  of  hay-forks, 
slings,  poles,  tracks,  pulleys,  etc.,  for  unloading  the  hay 
from  the  wagon  to  the  mow  or  stack. 

368.  Storing.  When  the  hay  is  properly  cured,  it  should 
be  placed  as  quickly  as  possible  in  some  permanent  place 
for  storage.  This  may  be  in  the  mow  of  a  barn,  under  a 


298  FIELD  CROPS 

shed-roof  built  specially  for  protecting  hay  from  the  weather, 
or  in  a  stack  in  the  open.  When  the  hay  is  to  be  fed  on  the 
farm  and  storage  room  can  be  provided  in  the  barn  without 
much  expense,  it  should  be  placed  there.  It  is  then  pro- 
tected from  loss  by  exposure  to  the  weather  and  is  con- 
veniently located  for  feeding.  If  any  quantity  is  to  be  stored 
in  the  barn,  a  track  and  carrier  should  be  placed  in  the  peak 
of  the  roof  and  provision  made  for  unloading  by  horse  power. 

When  the  mow  does  not  afford  sufficient  storage  room, 
particularly  when  the  hay  is  to  be  sold  rather  than  fed,  a 
specially  constructed  hay-shed  may  be  useful.  This  con- 
sists of  a  set  of  posts  covered  with  a  roof,  under  which  the 
hay  is  stored;  if  desired,  the  sides  and  ends  may  be  enclosed, 
but  this  is  not  essential,  as  there  will  be  little  loss  from 
weathering  if  the  sides  of  the  pile  of  hay  are  kept  straight 
so  that  rain  and  snow  can  not  penetrate.  Where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  hay  and  insufficient  storage  space  under  cover, 
stacking  in  the  open  is  necessary.  Where  a  number  of  loads 
are  to  be  put  into  one  stack,  unloading  is  facilitated  if  a  set 
of  poles  or  derricks  is  used  and  the  hay  is  unloaded  by  horses. 
Small  stacks  expose  relatively  more  surface  to  the  weather 
than  large  ones,  and  a  greater  proportion  of  the  hay  is 
injured  by  weathering. 

369.  Baling.  If  hay  is  to  be  sold  for  shipment,  it  is  com- 
pressed into  bales  of  from  100  to  200  pounds.  The  ordinary 
bale  averages  about  100  pounds  in  weight.  Hay  in  the  stack 
or  mow  occupies  from  350  to  500  cubic  feet  to  the  ton, 
depending  very  largely  on  the  height  of  the  stack,  the  kind 
of  hay,  and  the  length  of  time  it  has  settled.  Baled  hay 
occupies  from  100  to  150  cubic  feet  to  the  ton.  Baling 
presses  are  of  various  kinds,  and  the  pressure  is  applied  in 
various  ways.  The  power  for  pressing  is  generally  supplied 
by  a  sweep  drawn  by  horses,  though  a  steam  or  gasoline 


MARKET  GRADES  OF  HAY  299 

engine  may  be  substituted.  A  bale  of  hay  is  ordinarily 
about  16  by  18  by  40  inches,  though  both  smaller  and  larger 
bales  are  made.  The  bale  is  bound  with  wire.  Baling  is 
not  generally  done  until  some  weeks  or  months  after  the 
hay  crop  is  harvested,  usually  during  the  winter  when  there 
is  little  other  farm  work. 

370.  Measuring  Hay.    As  has  previously  been  stated, 
a  ton  of  hay  occupies  from  350  to  500  cubic  feet.    The  volume 
of  a  mow  can  usually  be  figured  quite  readily,  but  it  is  much 
more  difficult  to  estimate  the  contents  of  a  stack.    Numer- 
ous rules  have  been  proposed,  but  none  of  them  are  very 
accurate,  while  all  of  them  involve  considerable  figuring. 
The  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  ton  of  hay  varies  so  greatly 
with  the  kind  of  hay,  the  length  of  time  it  has  stood  in  the 
stack,  and  the  height  of  the  stack,  that  it  is  very  difficult 
to  get  a  rule  which  will  fit  all  conditions.    As  a  usual  thing, 
the  rules  are  more  favorable  to  the  buyer  than  the  seller, 
as  they  underestimate  rather  than  overestimate  the  number 
of  tons  in  the  stack  or  mow.    The  most  satisfactory  method 
of  selling  hay,  wherever  possible,  is  by  weight. 

371.  Market  Classes  of  Hay.    The  standard  hay  on  all 
markets  is  timothy.    Other  grades  depend  largely  on  the 
price  of  timothy  hay  and  the  quantity  of  the  different  grades 
which  are  available.    The  rules  for  grading  timothy  hay 
adopted  by  the  National  Hay  Association  are  as  follows: 

Choice  timothy  hay. — Shall  be  timothy  not  mixed  with  over  one- 
twentieth  other  grasses,  properly  cured,  bright  natural  color,  sound, 
and  well  baled. 

No.  1  timothy  hay. — Shall  be  timothy  with  not  more  than  one- 
eighth  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  properly  cured;  good 
color,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  timothy  hay. — Shall  be  timothy  not  good  enough  for  No.  1, 
not  over  one-fourth  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  fair  color 
sound,  and  well  baled. 


300  FIELD  CROPS 

No.  8  timothy  hay. — Shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough  for 
other  grades,  sound,  and  well  baled. 

No-grade  hay. — Shall  include  all  hay  badly  cured,  stained,  thrashed 
or  in  any  way  unsound. 

Other  grades  of  hay  recognized  by  the  National  Hay 
Association  include  light,  No.  1,  and  No.  2  clover  mixed 
hay;  No.  1  and  No.  2  clover  hay;  choice,  No.  1,  No.  2, 
and  No.  3  prairie  hay;  No.  1  and  No.  2,  midland  hay;  and 
choice,  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3  alfalfa  hay;  as  well  as 
several  grades  which  include  hay  of  very  low  quality. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

An  afternoon  spent  in  visiting  some  of  the  hay  mows,  feed  stores, 
or  hay  stacks  in  the  neighborhood  and  studying  the  different  types  of 
hay,  their  quality  and  other  characteristics,  may  be  made  very  instruc- 
tive. In  the  late  spring  or  early  summer,  a  visit  might  also  be  made 
to  several  hay  meadows  to  study  the  grasses  of  which  they  are  composed, 
the  prevalence  of  weeds,  and  other  factors  which  influence  the  quality 
of  the  product. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

312.  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm. 

362.  Conditions  Affecting  the  Market  Value  of  Hay. 
Seal's  Grasses  of  North  America. 
Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  36-51. 
Shaw's  Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  403-435. 
Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  2-13,  30-41,  217-224. 
Voorhees'  Forage  Crops,  pp.  16-18. 
Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PASTURES 

372.  The    Importance    of    Pastures.    The    acreage    of 
improved  land  in  farms,  according  to  the  Census  of  1910, 
was  about  477,000,000  acres.     Of  this,  something  like  145,- 
000,000  acres  was  pasture  land,  a  larger  area  than  was  devoted 
to  any  one  harvested  crop,  even  slightly  exceeding  corn. 
The  total  area  in  range,  mountain,  and  improved  pasture 
land  perhaps  considerably  exceeds  one  billion  acres,  though 
this  figure  is  necessarily  a  very  rough  estimate  (Sec.  339). 
It  is  impossible  to  make  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  annual 
value  of  this  pasture,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  of  the  harvested  crops.    A  valuation  of 
$1.50  an  acre  for  the  annual  product  of  this  land  would  aggre- 
gate as  much  as  the  annual  value  of  the  corn  crop. 

373.  The  Essentials  of  a  Good  Pasture.    A  good  pasture 
should  start  into  growth  early  in  the  season  and  should  con- 
tinue to  produce  feed  till  late  in  the  fall.    The  growth  of 
grasses  should  be  fine  rather  than  coarse,  and  the  product  of 
the  pasture  should  be  both  palatable  and  nutritious.    The 
yield  should  be  abundant  in  order  to  furnish  profitable 
returns.    The  plants  which  compose  it  should  form  a  close 
turf  which  is  not  readily  injured  by  tramping  or  close  grazing. 

374.  The  Formation  of  a  Pasture.    In  the  making  of  a 
pasture,  about  the  same  care  is  required  as  in  the  making  of 
a  meadow,  though  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  have  the  ground 
smooth  and  level.     The  plants  which  go  into  the  making  of 
a  pasture  should  be  as  carefully  chosen,  and  it  is  as  important 
to  have  good  seed,  free  from  weeds  and  other  impurities. 


302  FIELD  CROPS 

Weeds  materially  reduce  the  value  of  a  pasture,  by  occupy- 
ing space  which  should  be  available  for  better  plants,  by 
causing  stock  to  leave  the  grasses  which  grow  near  them, 
and  sometimes  by  actual  injury  to  the  stock  or  some  portion 
of  their  products.  Thus  wild  barley  is  injurious,  as  the 
beards  cause  soreness  of  the  mouths  and  jaws  of  stock  which 
eat  the  mature  heads;  weeds  which  produce  burs  injure  the 
wool  of  sheep,  making  it  more  difficult  to  clean  for  market 
and  reducing  its  market  value;  weeds  with  a  strong  odor, 
like  the  wild  onion,  affect  the  quality  of  milk  and  butter; 
and  other  weeds  are  poisonous  to  stock. 

In  the  more  thickly  settled  portions  of  the  United  States, 
the  pastures  are  usually  meadows  which  have  become  more 
or  less  unproductive,  or  low  lands  which  are  not  adapted  to 
the  production  of  harvested  crops.  The  general  practice  is 
to  harvest  one  or  two  crops  of  hay  from  a  meadow  and  then 
pasture  it  for  a  year  or  more  before  breaking  it  up  for  har- 
vested crops.  The  objection  to  this  plan  is  that  the  plants 
which  make  the  best  hay,  usually  timothy  and  red  clover, 
are  not  particularly  good  pasture  plants.  While  the  plan 
is  fairly  satisfactory  for  a  year  or  two,  something  else  must 
be  used  if  a  permanent  pasture  is  desired. 

If  a  pasture  is  to  be  started  which  is  to  be  more  or  less 
permanent,  some  grasses  should  be  included  in  the  mixture 
which  will  give  quick  returns,  and  others  which  will  come  on 
later  and  continue  to  produce  pasturage  in  later  years.  It 
is  not  usually  advisable  to  turn  stock  on  a  new  pasture  until 
the  sod  has  become  firmly  established,  usually  during  the 
second  season  of  its  growth.  More  seed  should  be  sown  for 
making  a  pasture  than  for  a  meadow. 

375.  Important  Pasture  Plants.  The  most  important 
pasture  plants  of  the  region  from  Virginia  northward  to  the 
Canadian  boundary  and  westward  to  Missouri,  Iowa,  and 


IMPROVING  PASTURES  303 

Minne'sota>  are  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white  clover. 
These  two  plants  come  in  on  old  meadows  and  in  pastures 
almost  spontaneously,  and  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  sow  them. 
If  a  mixture  is  sown  especially  for  use  as  pasture,  some  seed 
of  each  of  these  plants  should  be  included,  but  the  quantity 
need  not  be  large  unless  the  location  is  one  where  they  are 
not  common.  Brome  grass  is  also  a  good  pasture  plant  in 
this  section,  and  one  which  is  much  relished  by  stock.  Its 
range  of  usefulness  extends  westward  into  the  dry  sections 
of  Nebraska  and  the  Dakotas.  Its  use  is  restricted  because 
it  is  difficult  to  obtain  seed  free  from  quack  grass.  In  the 
South,  Bermuda  grass  is  the  great  pasture  plant,  though  les- 
pedeza,  or  Japan  clover,  is  also  important.  In  the  Great 
Plains  and  Rocky  Mountain  states,  the  native  grasses  make 
up  practically  all  of  the  pastures,  and  for  the  most  part  are 
more  hardy  and  nutritious  than  any  introduced  plants. 
Alfalfa  is  used  as  pasture  in  a  limited  way.  In  various  por- 
tions of  the  country,  annual  pasture  plants  are  sown  to  some 
extent. 

376.  Improving  a  Native  Pasture.  A  native  pasture, 
especially  in  the  Eastern  and  Central  states,  may  often  be 
materially  improved  by  proper  treatment  and  care.  Where 
the  ground  is  rough  and  there  are  many  hummocks,  the  use 
of  the  disk  and  smoothing  harrows  will  help  to  level  it  and 
aid  in  the  production  of  a  better  stand  and  more  uniform 
growth.  Brush  pastures  may  be  improved  by  removing  all 
or  a  part  of  the  brush  by  clearing,  firing,  or  pasturing  with 
goats.  The  latter  is  perhaps  the  most  economical  method, 
as  the  goats  will  clear  out  the  brush  and  at  the  same  time 
bring  in  some  return.  Disking  or  harrowing  pastures  to 
loosen  the  surface  soil,  and  then  sowing  small  quantities  of 
seed  of  good  pasture  plants  such  as  Kentucky  blue  grass  or 
white  clover,  will  increase  the  productiveness  of  native 


304  FIELD  CROPS 

pastures.     Clipping  with  the  mower  to  prevent  weeds  from 
seeding  is  also  a  good  practice. 

377.  The  Management  of  Pastures.    In  the  popular 
mind,  pastures  need  no  care  or  management.    All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  turn  the  stock  on  in  the  spring,  and  the  pas- 
tures will  take  care  of  themselves.     If  a  particularly  unfavor- 
able season  follows,  or  the  number  of  stock  is  too  great  for 
the  pasture,  it  may  be  necessary  in  August  or  September  to 
supplement  it  with  feed  from  outside,  or  the  stock  may  be 
turned  on  the  grain  stubble  or  the  meadows  to  pick  whatever 
growth  may  be  there.     In  some  instances  this  may  be  a  wise 
practice,  but  in  general  it  does  not  seem  to  be,  as  the  young 
seeding  or  the  meadow  may  be  damaged  more  than  the  stock 
will  be  benefited.     It  is  desirable  to  have  rather  more  pasture 
than  the  stock  will  utilize  in  a  favorable  season,  or  to  be  able 
to  supplement  the  permanent  pasture   with   annual  plants 
on  which  stock  may  be  turned  or  which  may  be  cut  for  feed- 
ing green.    One  of  the  best  plans  is  to  have  two  pastures, 
on  one  of  which  stock  grazes  for  three  or  four  weeks  while 
the  other  is  allowed  to  grow;  then  when  the  first  pasture 
becomes  rather  short,  the  stock  is  turned  into  the  second  and 
the  first  is  allowed  to  recuperate.    Good  pasturage  is  thus 
furnished  with  no  more  land  than  would  be  required  for  a 
single  pasture  which  would  give  less  satisfactory  service. 

378.  Renovating  Old  Pastures.    The   pastures  of  the 
Northeastern  and  North  Central  states  are  usually  in  part 
the  low,  wet  lands  of  the  farm  which  can  not  profitably  be 
brought  under  cultivation.    The  grasses  which  grow  on  this 
land  are  not  usually  so  palatable  or  nutritious  as  those  which 
thrive  on  the  higher,  better-drained  land  which  is  usually 
devoted  to  harvested  crops.    One  of  the  first  and  best  means 
of  renovating  or  improving  pastures  is  to  provide  thorough 
drainage.    Under  drainage  with   tile  is   usually  the   most 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  PASTURES  305 

satisfactory  and  permanent  method  of  removing  surplus 
water  from  the  land.  When  this  extra  supply  of  water  is 
removed,  air  can  penetrate  the  soil,  and  better  kinds  of 
grasses  will  grow  on  it.  Clovers  and  grasses  often  thrive  on 
well-drained  land  which  would  not  grow  there  at  all  before 
the  drainage  was  supplied.  In  many  other  districts  beside 
those  mentioned,  drainage  is  one  of  the  prime  factors  in 
improving  pasture  lands. 

The  best  pastures,  those  on  which  white  clover  and 
Kentucky  blue  grass  thrive,  contain  an  abundance  of  lime. 
All  the  legumes  and  many  of  the  grasses  grow  best  where 
there  is  plenty  of  lime.  Another  step,  then,  in  renovating 
pastures,  is  to  supply  lime,  particularly  to  those  which  have 
recently  been  underdrained.  The  lime  can  best  be  added 
by  scattering  finely  ground  limestone  over  the  pasture  early 
in  the  spring  at  the  rate  of  two  tons  to  the  acre.  Lime  may 
also  be  applied  in  the  ordinary  commercial  form,  air-slaked, 
at  the  rate  of  one  ton  to  the  acre,  but  this  is  usually  more 
expensive  than  the  ground  limestone.  Soils  on  which  blue- 
grass  and  the  clovers  grow  freely  do  not  need  lime,  as  their 
presence  indicates  an  abundance  of  this  element. 

Disking  and  harrowing  old  pastures  will  often  aid  in 
inducing  new  growth  by  loosening  the  surface  soil  and  break- 
ing up  a  sod-bound  condition  which  may  have,  resulted  from 
years  of  continuous  trampling  by  stock.  If  seed  of  good 
pasture  grasses  is  sown  at  this  time,  the  growth  of  the  pas- 
ture will  be  still  further  improved.  While  much  of  the 
manure  is  returned  to  the  land  when  it  is  pastured,  the  addi- 
tion of  more  manure  will  cause  a  more  luxuriant  growth  of 
grass.  The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers,  particularly 
those  which  are  rich  in  phosphorus,  such  as  ground  bone,  is 
sometimes  advisable. 


306  FIELD  CROPS 

Range  pastures  which  have  become  scanty  from  over- 
pasturing  may  be  greatly  improved  by  pasturing  lightly  for 
a  year  or  two,  allowing  the  native  grasses  to  mature  and 
reseed.  There  is  no  better  or  more  efficient  means  of  im- 
proving range  pastures  than  this.  Rotation  of  the  pastures, 
allowing  the  stock  to  graze  on  one  for  a  time  and  then 
changing  to  another,  will  result  in  the  production  of  more 
pasturage  from  the  acreage  than  if  the  entire  area  is  grazed 
continuously.  This  rotation  allows  the  formation  of  some 
seed  from  time  to  time  and  thus  aids  in  the  renewal  of  the 
stand  of  useful  grasses.  It  is  seldom  practical  to  sow  grass 
seed  on  these  pastures,  because  the  acreage  is  so  large,  and 
it  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  seed  of  the  native  grasses  which 
compose  them.  The  cultivated  grasses  of  which  seed  can 
be  obtained  cheaply  usually  do  not  grow  so  well  under  range 
conditions  as  the  native  kinds. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Visits  to  pastuies  in  the  neighborhood,  with  careful  studies  of  the 
plants  of  which  they  are  composed,  the  prevalence  of  weeds,  and  such 
other  points  as  appear  to  be  important,  may  be  made  with  profit.  The 
best  time  to  make  these  studies  is  late  in  the  spring  or  early  in  the  fall. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  434-455. 

Beal's  Grasses  of  North  America. 

Shaw's  Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  335-402,  435-453. 

Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops,  pp.  23-36. 

Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  14-55. 

Voorhees'  Forage  Crops,  pp.  311-327. 

Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  GRASSES 

379.  What  the  Grasses  Are.    In  much  of  the  preceding 
discussion  of  forage  crops,  the  term  "grasses"  has  been  used  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  common  farm  usage,  as  including  all  hay 
and  pasture  plants,  whether  they  are  true  grasses,  legumes, 
or  a  mixture  of  both  classes  of  plants.     In  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding chapters,  the  term  will  be  used  in  its  more  limited 
sense,  as  referring  only  to  the  true  grasses,  the  members  of  the 
Gramineae  or  grass  family,  excluding  from  it  the  legumes, 
such  as  clover  and  alfalfa.    The  true  grasses  are  among  our 
most  common  plants.    The  number  of  species  is  very  great, 
especially  in  tropical  countries;  several  hundred  are  native 
to  the  United  States.     In  temperate  regions,  the  number  of 
individual  plants  of  the  grasses  is  much  greater  proportion- 
ally than  the  number  of  species,  large  areas  often  being  cov- 
ered with  a  solid  mat  or  turf  of  one  or  more  species  of  grass. 
The  grass  family  is  the  most  important  natural  group  of 
plants;  it  includes  not  only  the  pasture  and  meadow  plants  to 
which  the  term  is  commonly  applied,  but  also  the  cereals, 
which  supply  a  very  large  part  of  the  food  of  men  and  ani- 
mals.   Among  the  more  important  of  the  forage  grasses  in 
the  United  States  are  timothy,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  red- 
top,  orchard  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  Johnson  grass,  brome 
grass,  and  the  native  wheat  grasses. 

380.  General  Characters.    Most  of  the  grasses  are  com- 
paratively short,  herbaceous  annuals  or  perennials,  though  a 
few,  such  as  the  bamboos  of  the  tropical  regions,  assume 
shrub   or   tree   forms.    The   stems   are   generally   hollow; 


308  FIELD  CROPS 

the  nodes  or  joints  are  always  solid.  This  construction  of 
the  stem  allows  the  plant  to  stand  considerable  strain  from 
wind  and  rain  without  injury.  The  base  of  the  leaf  forms 
a  sheath  around  the  stem,  which  further  strengthens  it;  the 
sheath  is  usually  split  to  the  base  on  the  side  opposite  the 
blade.  A  thin,  hard  ring,  called  the  ligule,  forms  the  junc- 
tion of  the  blade  and  the  sheath,  clasping  the  stem  or  culm 
and  acting  as  a  guard  against  the  entrance  of  rain  or  dust  to 
the  inside  of  the  sheath. 

The  flowers  are  borne  in  spikes  or  panicles,  made  up  of 
spikelets  of  two  or  more  bracts  or  scales.  They  consist 
of  from  one  to  three  very  small  scales,  from  one  to  six 
stamens,  and  a  one-celled  ovary,  usually  with  two  styles. 
The  flowers  may,  however,  be  imperfect,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  tassel  flowers  of  corn,  which  have  no  pistils.  The  stigmas 
are  hairy  or  plume-like,  and  the  anthers  are  attached  at  or 
near  their  middles  to  the  filaments,  so  that  they  swing  freely 
in  every  breeze.  The  fruit  is  a  caryopsis,  the  seed  or  grain 
being  enclosed  in  a  membrane  which  adheres  closely  to  it. 

381.  Differences.  The  grasses,  though  they  have  many 
characters  in  common,  are  quite  variable.  In  height,  they 
vary  from  a  few  inches,  as  in  the  case  of  many  of  our  native 
prairie  grasses,  to  several  feet,  as  in  corn  and  sorghum,  while 
some  of  the  bamboos  grow  to  the  height  of  large  trees.  The 
stems  may  be  hollow,  as  in  wheat  or  oats,  or  filled  with  pith, 
as  in  corn.  A  large  proportion  of  the  leaves  may  be  produced 
at  or  near  the  base  of  the  stem,  making  the  grass  valuable 
for  pasture,  or  many  of  the  leaves  may  be  borne  on  upright 
stems,  the  plant  then  being  suitable  for  hay.  The  flowers 
may  be  perfect,  as  in  wheat;  monoecious,  as  in  corn;  or 
dioecious,  as  in  the  buffalo  grass  of  the  western  prairies. 
They  may  be  borne  in  close  spikes,  as  in  timothy;  in  loose 
spikes,  as  in  wheat  or  rye;  or  in  panicles,  as  in  oats  or  red- 


IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  GRASSES  309 

top.  The  plants  may  be  annuals,  as  oats;  winter  annuals, 
as  winter  wheat;  or  perennials,  as  timothy,  brome  grass  or 
blue  grass.  The  habit  of  growth  may  vary  greatly,  from  the 
erect  form  of  timothy  to  the  creeping  habit  of  buffalo  grass 
and  the  bent  grasses.  The  leaves  may  be  numerous  at  the 
base  of  the  stem  and  sparing  above,  or  they  may  be  small 
and  scanty  at  the  base  and  more  numerous  along  the  stem. 
The  roots  may  be  bulbous,  as  in  timothy,  or  fibrous,  as  in 
the  annual  species  and  many  of  the  perennial  ones. 

382.  Why  the  Grasses  Are  Important.    The  grasses  are 
of  great  importance  in  our  agriculture,  for  they  supply,  in 
addition  to  the  cereal  grains,  a  very  large  part  of  the  forage 
which  is  fed  to  domestic  animals.    This  forage  may  be  in 
the  form  of  green  herbage,  either  as  pasture  or  for  soiling; 
preserved  green  herbage,  or  silage;  or  dried  herbage,  as  hay, 
straw,  or  fodder.    A  feature  of  the  grasses  which  makes 
them  valuable  pasture  plants  is  the  location  of  the  growing 
point  of  the  leaf.    This  is  near  the  base,  so  that  the  tip  may 
be  grazed  or  clipped  off  several  times  and  the  leaf  still  con- 
tinue to  grow.    The  forage  grasses  add  variety  to  the  rota- 
tion, supplying  crops  which  may  be  used  as  meadows  or 
pastures,  or  short-season  crops  such  as  millet,  which  may 
be  used  to  occupy  the  land  when  an  earlier-planted  crop  fails. 
The  perennial  varieties  add  a  mass  of  vegetable  matter  to 
the  soil;  they  thus  improve  its  physical  condition  and  their 
decay  increases  the  yield  of  annual  crops  which  follow.    They 
also  form  a  cover  which  prevents  the  loss  of  fertility  by  wash- 
ing and  other  means  of  erosion. 

383.  Comparative    Value    of    Different    Species.    The 
various  meadow  and  pasture  grasses  differ  little  so  far  as  the 
feeding  value  of  their  products  is  concerned.    They  contain 
about  the  same  quantities  of  the  important  food  elements, 
and  these  elements  are  about  as  digestible  in  one  grass  or 


310  FIELD  CROPS 

hay  as  in  another.  There  is  naturally  some  difference  in 
this  respect  among  the  many  species,  but  there  is  likely  to 
be  as  much  variation  between  samples  of  any  one  of  the 
important  grasses  when  grown  under  different  soil  and  cli- 
matic conditions  or  when  cut  at  different  stages  of  growth. 
There  is  a  very  decided  variation  also  in  the  digestibility  of 
the  same  grass  when  cut  at  different  stages  for  hay,  the 
maximum  of  digestible  food  material  usually  being  present 
at  about  the  time  the  grass  is  in  bloom  or  a  little  later. 

While  there  is  comparatively  little  difference  in  food 
value  among  the  grasses,  there  is  a  great  variation  in  palata- 
bility.  Thus,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  brome  grass  are 
among  our  most  palatable  pasture  grasses,  while  timothy 
makes  hay  which  ranks  high  in  this  regard.  Redtop  is  less 
palatable  as  pasture  than  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  less  as 
hay  than  timothy.  Velvet  grass,  which  contains  as  much 
food  material  as  timothy,  is  not  eaten  by  stock  because  of 
the  numerous  hairs  on  the  stems  and  leaves.  Other  grasses 
are  unpalatable  for  other  reasons.  Different  animals  vary 
somewhat  as  to  their  choice  of  the  grasses,  so  that  some 
grasses  that  are  highly  palatable  to  cattle,  for  instance,  may 
be  less  so  to  sheep.  The  soil  and  the  proportion  of  the  dif- 
ferent elements  of  plant  food  which  it  contains  also  seem  to 
have  some  influence  on  palatability. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  365-377. 

Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  43-62. 

Seal's  Grasses  of  North  America. 

Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  1-51. 

Shaw's  Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  1-48. 

Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  1-74. 

Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 


CHAPTER  XV 

PERENNIAL  GRASSES 

TIMOTHY 

384.  Origin.    Timothy,   Phleum   pratense,    is    a   native 
of  Europe  and  of  eastern  United  States;  its  cultivation  in 
this   country  dates   from   about   1700.    Timothy  Hansen 
first  grew  this  grass  in  Maryland,  where  it  was  known  as 
Timothy's  grass,  and  later  as  timothy.    There  has  been 
little  change  in  timothy  since  it  was  first  cultivated,  and 
only  in  the  last  few  years  have  attempts  been  made  to 
improve  it  or  to  separate  it-  into  varieties.     Even  now,  it  is 
not  possible  to  purchase  seed  of  any  distinct  variety  of 
timothy,  though  there  is  great  variation  among  the  plants. 
The  same  statement  may  be  made  with  equal  truth  regard- 
ing all  the  other  forage  grasses  and  most  of  the  leguminous 
forage  plants.    In  fact,  many  of  them  are  little  more  than 
plants  brought  in  from  the  wild,  with  no  effort  at  improve- 
ment.   There  is  much  to  be  accomplished  in  the  breeding  of 
forage  crops  for  special  purposes,  and  great  increases  in  yields 
of  hay  or  pasture  may  be  expected  from  careful  work  of  this 
kind. 

385.  Description.    Timothy    is    a    rather    deep-rooting 
perennial  grass,  with  stems  or  culms  ranging  from  6  or  8 
inches  to  6  feet  high.    The  usual  height  is  from  2J^  to  4 
feet.    The  culms  are  usually  straight,  but  they  may  be  bent 
or  prostrate  at  the  base.    The  lower  node  of  the  culm  is 
enlarged,  forming  a  sort  of  bulb,  a  character  peculiar  to  this 
plant  among  the  grasses.    The  culm  leaves  are  much  more 
numerous  than  the  basal  leaves,  making  the  plant  valuable 


312 


FIELD  CROPS 


for  hay.  The  leaves  are  from  3  to  10  inches  long  and  from 
%  to  ]/2  inch  wide.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  a  long,  close 
spike,  usually  cylindrical  in  form,  from  1^  to  6  inches  in 
length  and  J^  to  J/£  inch  in  diameter.  This  spike  is  made 
up  of  many  one-flowered  spikelets.  The  seed  is  about  one- 
twelfth  of  an  inch  long,  silvery  gray  in  color,  and  usually 

loosely  enclosed  in  the  palea 
and  flowering  glume.  It  is 
easily  removed  from  them  in 
thrashing  and  cleaning,  how- 
ever, and  many  of  the  seeds 
are  commonly  without  a 
covering. 

386.  Importance.  In  the 
Northeastern  and  North  Cen- 
tral states,  timothy  is  the 
most  important  meadow  grass, 
and  it  is  also  largely  used  as 
pasture.  It  is  of  more  or  less 
importance  all  over  the 
country  except  in  the  extreme 
South.  No  other  grass  com- 
pares with  it  in  importance  as 
a  hay  grass;  other  kinds  of  hay 
are  sold  to  some  extent,  but 
timothy  is  the  standard.  Out 
of  a  total  area  of  72,000,000 
acres  devoted  to  the  production  of  hay  and  other  forage  in 
the  United  States  in  1909,  according  to  the  Census  reports, 
timothy  alone  was  grown  on  14,675,000  acres,  and  timothy 
and  clover  mixed  on  19,536,000  acres.  The  only  other  class 
of  hay  and  forage  which  compared  at  all  with  timothy  in 
acreage  was  the  combination  of  all  wild,  salt,  and  prairie 


Fig.  95.  A  head  of  timothy, 
the  most  common  tame  grass  of 
the  United  States. 


SOWING  TIMOTHY 


313 


grasses,  which  totaled  16,868,000  acres.  The  production  of 
timothy  hay  amounted  to  17,973,000  tons,  of  timothy  and 
clover  mixed,  24,743,000  tons;  and  of  wild,  salt,  and  prairie 
grasses,  18,117,000  tons. 

387.  Soils  and  Fertilizers.    Timothy  grows  best  on  clay 
loam  soils  which  are  retentive  of  moisture,  though  it  thrives 
on  quite  a  variety  of  soils.    It  grows  better  in  moist  climates 
than  in  dry  ones,  and  on  fertile  loams  than  on  sandy  soils. 
It  does  not  grow  well  on  very  acid  soils,  redtop  being  a  much 
better  grass  for  such  locations.    The  liberal  use  of  stable 
manure  will  greatly 

increase  the  yield  of 
timothy,  while  the 
plowing  under  of  a 
leguminous  crop  be- 
fore sowing,  or  the 
use  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  also  pro- 
duces a  heavier 
growth.  In  fact, 
some  benefit  is  de- 
rived from  the  nitro- 
gen stored  in  the 

soil  by  leguminous  crops  such  as  clover  which  grow  with 
the  timothy. 

388.  Sowing  the  Seed.    Timothy  seed  weighs  from  42 
to  50  pounds  to  the  bushel,  according  to  its  cleanness  from 
hulls.    The  legal  weight  in  most  states  is  45  pounds.    The 
usual  rate  of  seeding  is  from  8  to  12  pounds  to  the  acre, 
though  15  pounds  are  sometimes  sown.     When  sown  with 
clover,  7  to  10  pounds  of  timothy  are  sown  with  from  5  to  8 
pounds  of  clover.     Good,  clean  seed  of  a  high  percentage  of 
germination  should  be  used.     Timothy  seed  is  less  subject 


Seeds    of    timothy;    a,    with    husk, 
enlarged;  6,  husk  removed,  enlarged;    c,  natural 


314  FIELD  CROPS 

to  adulteration  than  the  seed  of  many  of  the  other  grasses 
and  clovers.  Redtop,  orchard  grass,  and  other  grass  seeds 
are  sometimes  found  in  it,  but  usually  in  small  quantities 
only.  The  seed  is  best  sown  with  a  broadcast  seeder  of  the 
wheelbarrow  type,  though  any  of  the  common  methods  are 
generally  satisfactory.  A  light  harrowing  after  seeding 
will  cover  the  seed  to  a  sufficient  depth.  In  the  winter 
wheat  region,  timothy  is  generally  sown  in  the  fall  with  that 
grain;  farther  north,  it  is  sown  in  the  spring  with  spring 
grain.  When  sown  with  grain,  a  special  seeding  attachment 
on  the  drill  is  sometimes  used.  Of  recent  years,  July  and 
August  seeding  without  a  nurse  crop  is  coming  into  quite 
general  favor  in  some  sections.  As  the  seed  is  small,  it 
should  not  be  covered  too  deeply;  one-half  inch  is  usually 
sufficient  except  in  dry  seasons. 

389.  Care  of  the  Meadow.    The  habit  of  growth  of 
timothy  makes  it  particularly  adapted  to  use  as  a  hay  grass. 
The  meadow  should  not  be  pastured  if  the  largest  yields  of 
hay  are  desired.    The  bulbs  produced  at  the  base  of  the 
culms  are  pulled  up  and  eaten  by  stock,  particularly  during 
dry  seasons  when  the  growth  of  the  grass  is  slow.    These 
bulbs  are  also  injured  by  the  trampling  of  stock,  so  that 
very    frequently,    especially    on    new    meadows,    more   is 
lost  in  damage  to  the  succeeding  crop  of  hay  than  is  gained 
from  the  use  of  the  pasture.     In  dry,  hot  weather,  timothy 
should  be  cut  with  rather  long  stubble  to  avoid  injury  to 
the  bulbs.    The  application  of  a  top  dressing  of  stable 
manure  in  the  spring  or  after  the  hay  crop  has  been  removed 
will  greatly  increase  succeeding  crops.    Best  results  will  be 
obtained  from  the  use  of  this  manure  if  it  is  scattered  evenly 
over  the  meadow  with  a  manure  spreader. 

390.  Making  Hay.    Timothy  hay  is  most  readily  eaten 
by  cattle  if  it  is  cut  when  in  bloom;  horses  prefer  it  if  cut  a 


THE  TIMOTHY  MEADOW  315 

few  days  after  it  goes  out  of  bloom.  As  the  quantity  of 
dry  matter  produced  on  an  acre  increases  up  to  the  time  the 
seed  begins  to  ripen,  it  is  probable  that  the  larger  yield  of 
food  material  can  be  obtained  by  late  rather  than  by  early 
cutting.  When  a  large  acreage  is  to  be  harvested,  cutting 
should  begin  when  the  plants  come  into  blossom,  in  order 
to  complete  the  work  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  for  the  stems 
become  dry  and  woody  and  many  of  the  leaves  are  lost  after 
the  dough  stage  is  passed. 

Timothy  is  usually  ready  to  cut  for  hay  in  July,  when 
the  best  conditions  are  presented  for  hay  making.  The 
plants  cure  readily  and  there  is  ordinarily  little  loss  from 
injury  by  rain  or  dew.  Little  or  no  extra  labor  is  required 
in  the  curing  of  the  hay.  It  seldom  needs  to  be  turned  with 
the  tedder  or  put  into  cocks  for  curing,  practically  as  good 
results  being  obtained  when  it  is  cured  in  the  swath  and 
hauled  immediately  to  the  barn  or  stack.  A  few  hours  are 
usually  ample  to  cure  the  hay  sufficiently  for  storing. 

391.  Value  of  the  Hay.    The  prominence  of  timothy  as  a 
hay  grass  is  due  largely  to  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  cured, 
the   certainty  of  getting  a  catch,  the  yields  of  hay  it  pro- 
duces, and  the  cheapness  of  the  seed.     It  is  not  particularly 
high  in  feeding  value,  though  the  fact  that  it  can  be  fed 
with  little  waste  and  that  all  classes  of  animals  eat  it  readily 
makes  it  a  general  favorite  on  the  market.    Timothy  hay 
usually  contains  about  6  per  cent  of  protein,  45  per  cent  of 
carbohydrates,  2.5  per  cent  of  fat,  and  29  per  cent  of  crude 
fiber.    Only  about   half  this   food  material   is   ordinarily 
digestible.    Timothy  is  somewhat  lower  in  protein  than  are 
most  of  the  other  grasses,  but  is  about  equal  to  them  in 
other  food  materials.     (Sec.  344). 

392.  Pasturing.    Although  timothy  is  not  adapted  to 
use  as  a  pasture  grass,  and  though  meadows  of  it  are  often 


3i'6  FIELD  CROPS 

seriously  injured  for  hay  production  by  pasturing,  this  grass 
is  often  used  for  pasture  purposes.  It  is  rather  a  common 
practice  to  cut  hay  from  a  timothy  and  clover  meadow  for 
one  or  two  seasons  and  then  to  pasture  it  for  a  year  or  more 
before  breaking  up  the  sod  to  plant  some  annual  crop. 
While  more  pasturage  could  be  obtained  from  any  one  of 
several  other  crops,  this  practice  is  a  convenient  one  and 
probably  will  continue  to  prevail.  Where  it  is  the  intention 
to  use  the  meadow  land  as  pasture  for  a  year  or  more,  it  is 
well  to  add  small  quantities  of  seed  of  some  of  the  more 
permanent  pasture  plants,  such  as  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
brome  grass,  and  white  clover.  These  will  not  make  enough 
growth  to  be  very  noticeable  in  the  hay  during  the  first  year 
or  two,  but  they  will  become  firmly  established  by  the  time 
it  is  desired  to  use  the  land  as  pasture,  and  will  furnish  better 
and  more  permanent  pasture  than  timothy  and  clover  with- 
out them. 

393.  Harvesting  the  Seed  Crop.    As  timothy  usually 
makes  but  little  second  growth,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the 
first  crop  of  the  season  as  the  seed  crop.     It  is  allowed  to 
ripen  and  is  cut  with  the  grain  binder,  shocked,  and  handled 
in  every  way  similar  to  a  grain  crop.    The  usual  yield  is 
from  3  to  5  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre.    Timothy  which  is 
grown  for  seed  should  be  free  from  weeds  and  from  mixtures 
of  other  grasses.    The  price  of  the  seed  varies  somewhat 
from  season  to  season,  but  it  is  almost"  always  possible  to 
sow  an  acre  of  timothy  at  less  cost  than  an  acre  of  any  other 
grass.     This  is  probably  the  chief  reason  that  timothy  is 
so  generally  sown. 

KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS 

394.  Origin  and  Description.     Kentucky  blue  grass,  Poa 
pratensis,  is  either  a  native  of  the  United  States  from  Pennsyl- 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS 


317 


vania  west  to  the  Mississippi  River,  or  it  was  introduced  from 
Europe  at  a  very  early  date.     It  is  also  called  June  grass, 
wire  grass,  and  spear  grass.    It  is  now  commonly  found  as 
far  south  as  Tennessee 
and  as  far  west  as  east- 
ern Nebraska.       It  is 
a  rather  shallow-rooted 
grass,     but    makes    a 
close,    even    sod,    and 
one  which  is  not  easily 
injured    by    trampling 
or  close  grazing.    The 
culms     do     not     grow 
more  than  2  feet  tall. 
The  culm     leaves    are 
scanty,  not  more  than 
6  inches  long  and  % 
inch    broad,    but    the 
basal  leaves  are  numer- 
ous and  much  larger, 
making  the  plant  valu- 
able for  pasture.    The 
flowers  are  produced  in 
open,    spreading   pani- 
cles; the   spikelets  are 
from    three    to     five- 
flowered.      The    grain 
or  caryopsis  is  enclosed 
in  the  flowering  glume 
and  palea.    The  seed   (i.  e.,  the  grain  and  its  enclosing 
envelops)    is   from   one-tenth  to  one-sixth  of   an  inch  in 
length.     Canada  blue  grass  seed,  which  is  often  used   as 
an  adulterant,  is  shorter,   less  pointed,   and   is   generally 


Fig.  97.    A  panicle  of  Kentucky  blue  grass. 


318 


FIELD  CROPS 


cleaner  in  appearance.  The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of 
Kentucky  blue  grass  seed  is  14  pounds,  but  recleaned 
seed  will  often  weigh  25  pounds  or  more  to  the  bushel. 
The  seed  ripens  in  June,  hence  the  name  June  grass. 

395.  Importance.    In  the  region  from  Virginia  north 
to  the  Canadian  border  and  west  to  eastern  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,   Kentucky   blue   grass   is   the   most  important 
pasture  grass.     It  is  of  particular  value  in  this  region  wher- 
ever there  is  a  noticeable  quantity  of  lime  in  the  soil,  as  this 

element  seems  specially 
necessary  for  its  best 
growth.  In  the  moun- 
tain valleys  of  Virginia 
and  West  Virginia,  and 
quite  generally  over 
much  of  Kentucky, 
this  grass  thrives  as 
it  does  nowhere  else, 
though  in  the  lime- 
stone regions  of  other 
states  it  makes  a 
very  vigorous,  nutriti- 
ous growth.  With 
white  clover,  it  makes 
up  a  very  large  part  of  our  pastures.  It  is  sown  com- 
paratively little,  but  seeds  itself  in  old  meadows  and 
pastures,  gradually  replacing  the  shorter-lived  grasses.  It 
is  also  the  most  important  lawn  grass  over  this  area. 

396.  Soils.    As    stated    in    the    preceding    paragraph, 
Kentucky  blue  grass  grows  best  on  soils  which  contain  lime. 
It  will  thrive,  however,  on  well-drained  loam  and  loamy  clay 
soils  of  the  region  mentioned.    It  will  not  grow  on  as  heavy 
clay  soils  as  timothy  or  redtop,  nor  will  it  do  well  on  sandy 


Fig.  98.  Seeds  of  (a)  Kentucky  blue  grass; 
and  (b)  Canada  blue  grass.  The  Kentucky 
blue  grass  seeds  are  broadest  in  the  center 
and  pointed;  the  Canada  blue  grass  seeds 
are  broadest  at  one  end  and  blunt. 


BLUE  GRASS  PASTURES.  319 

land.  Since  the  root  system  is  shallow,  it  is  not  adapted 
to  dry  sections  nor  to  dry  locations.  It  grows  better  under 
shade  than  many  of  the  other  grasses,  and  is  particularly 
suited  to  open  woodland  pastures. 

397.  Seeding.    The  germination  of  the  seed  is  frequently 
low,  so  that  heavy  seeding  is  necessary.    Seed  should  not 
be  purchased  until  a  germination  test  has  been  made.     When 
the  grass  is  sown  alone  for  immediate  results,  as  in  the  case 
of  lawns,  as  much  as  40  pounds  may  be  sown  to  the  acre.     If 
sown  in  a  mixture  with  other  grasses,  some  of  which  will 
make  a  quick  growth  which  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  will 
be  largely  replaced  by  blue  grass,  from  10  to  12  pounds  will 
be  sufficient.    On  account  of  its  slowness  in  occupying  the 
land  and  making  adequate  returns,  Kentucky  blue  grass  is 
seldom  sown  alone  for  pasture.     It  is  either  sown  in  a  mix- 
ture or  is  not  sown  at  all,  the  natural  growth  of  the  plant 
being  depended  on  to  occupy  the  land  after  it  has  been 
pastured  for  a  few  years.    Even  when  seeded,  it  does  not 
make  much  of  a  showing  for  three  or  four  years  and  then 
continues  to  improve  for  several  years  thereafter.    Best 
results  are  obtained  from  sowing  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in 
the  spring,  either  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop. 

398.  Pasturing.    Kentucky  blue  grass  begins  to  grow 
early  in  the  spring  and  continues  its  growth  till  late  in  the 
fall,  but  it  does  not  grow  well  in  hot,  dry  weather.    For  this 
reason,  it  needs  to  be  supplemented  to  some  extent  during 
July  and  August.     It  is  well  to  provide  some  extra  feed 
for  stock  during  these  months,  in  the  way  of  silage  or  an 
annual  pasture  or  soiling  crop.    Blue  grass  is  one  of  our  most 
nutritious  and  palatable  pasture  grasses.    Cattle  prefer  it 
to  timothy  or  redtop,  but  will  eat  brome  grass  in  preference 
to  it.    No  special  care  is  needed  by  pastures  made  up  of 
white  clover  and  Kentucky  blue  grass.     On  land  to  which 


320  FIELD  CROPS 

they  are  adapted,  these  plants  will  naturally  improve  from 
year  to  year,  as  most  of  the  fertility  is  returned  to  the  soil 
in  the  manure,  and  the  clover  increases  the  supply  of  nitrogen. 

399.  Care  of  Lawns.    Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 
and  thick  seeding  are  necessary  to  get  immediate  results  in 
lawns  and  to  keep  down  weeds.    No  better  lawn  can  be 
made  in  our  Northern  states  than  one  composed  of  blue  grass 
and  white  clover.    Frequent  clipping  only  serves  to  improve 
it.     If  a  good  stand  is  obtained,  there  will  be  little  trouble 
from  weeds;  there  will  be  no  room  for  them.    Lawns  should 
not  be  clipped  too  closely  or  too  frequently  in  hot,  dry 
weather,  for  the  roots  are  likely  to  "burn  out"  from  exposure 
to  the  sun.    The  land  should  be  kept  rich  by  the  addition 
of  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers,  as  the  fertility  is  rapidly 
removed  in  the  clippings. 

400.  Harvesting  Blue  Grass  Seed.    Most  of  the  seed 
of  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  produced  in  a  small  area  near 
Lexington,  Kentucky.    The  seed  is  stripped  from  the  heads 
by  horse  machines  as  soon  as  the  panicles  begin  to  turn  yel- 
low, which  is  about  the  second  week  in  June.     It  is  then 
piled  in  windrows  three  or  four  feet  deep  to  cure,  and  is 
stirred  thoroughly  every  day  to  keep  it  from  heating.     It  is 
cured  in  about  ten  days,  when  it  is  cleaned  and  prepared 
for  market.    A  good  yield  of  seed  as  it  is  ordinarily  cleaned 
is  from  125  to  200  pounds  to  the  acre;  when  the  seed  is  cleaned 
to  weigh  24  pounds  or  more  to  the  bushel,    the  yield  seldom 
exceeds  75  or  100  pounds. 

401.  Related  Plants.    Other  species  of  Poa  are  of  some 
importance  as  pasture  or  meadow  grasses  in  limited  sections 
of  the  country,  particularly  in  New  York  and  New  England. 
Canada  blue  grass,  Poa  compressa,  is  of  some  value  as  a 
pasture  grass  in  some  sections  of  eastern  Canada,  New  York, 
and  New  England.     It  grows  on  poorer,  heavier  clay  soils 


REDTOP 


321 


than  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  largely  takes  the  place  of  that 
grass  in  such  locations.  Where  Kentucky  blue  grass  will 
thrive,  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  Canada  blue  grass,  but  in 

certain     locations    the    latter    is 

superior.  The  seed  is  frequently 
used  as  an  adulterant  of  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass.  The  main 
differences  in  the  appearance  of 
the  two  grasses  are  that  the 
stems  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  are 
round,  while  those  of  Canada 
blue  grass  are  flattened  or  com- 
pressed; the  leaves  of  the  latter 
are  shorter  and  less  numerous, 
and  the  panicles  are  less  spreading. 
Other  related  grasses  are  wood 
meadow  grass,  Poa  nemoralis,  and 
fowl  meadow  grass,  Poa  flava. 
Neither  of  these  is  of  much  im- 
portance, though  they  are  grown 
to  some  extent  in  limited  areas. 

REDTOP 

402.  Origin    and    Description. 

Redtop,  Agrostis  alba,  is  a  native 
of  the  United  States,  growing- 
wild  over  a  large  portion  of  the 
country.  The  plant  does  not 
root  deeply,  but  makes  a  firm, 
close  sod,  for  rootstocks  are  pro- 
duced in  large  numbers.  It  is 
valuable  to  prevent  washing,  and  is  not  injured  by  tramp- 
ling. The  culms  grow  from  1  to  3  feet  tall.  They  are 


Fig.  99.  Panicle  of  Canada 
blue  grass.  Contrast  it  with  the 
open,  spreading  panicle  of  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  in  Fig.  97. 


13 


322 


FIELD  CROPS 


often  prostrate  or  decumbent  at  the  base  and  root  freely 
at  the  nodes  where  they  come  in  contact  with  the  soil. 
The  basal  and  culm  leaVes  are  both  quite  numerous.  The 
flowers  are  borne  in  an  open,  branching  panicle  which 

contains    many    one-flowered 

spikelets.  The  grass  may  be 
distinguished  from  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  which  it  resembles 
to  some  extent,  by  its  one- 
flowered  spikelets,  later  flow- 
ering, and  the  reddish  or 
purplish  color  of  the  glumes. 
It  comes  into  flower  about 
six  weeks  later  than  blue 
grass.  The  grain,  which  is 
only  about  one-twenty-fifth 
of  an  inch  long,  is  enclosed 
in  the  flowering  glume,  which 
is  about  one  and  one-half 
times  as  long  as  the  grain. 
The  seed  weighs  about  12 
pounds  to  the  bushel  before 
it  is  separated  from  the  outer 
glumes;  recleaned  seed  may 
weigh  as  much  as  36  pounds 
to  the  bushel. 

403.  Importance.  Redtop 
probably  ranks  next  to  timo- 
thy in  importance  as  a  hay  grass  over  the  region  where 
timothy  is  grown.  Its  range,  however,  is  wider  than  that 
of  either  timothy  or  blue  grass,  and  it  is  most  important 
where  those  grasses  are  sparingly  grown.  It  thrives  in  New 
England,  as  far  south  as  the  northern  end  of  the  Gulf  states, 


-Fig.   100. 


Redtop,  a  good  grass  for 
wet  lands. 


SEEDING  REDTOP  323 

and  on  wet  lands  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  grows  on  soils 
and  in  locations  where  timothy  will  not  grow,  and  produces 
good  yields  of  hay.  The  hay  is  about  equal  to  timothy  in 
feeding  value,  though  it  is  not  as  palatable  and  is  not  in 
general  favor.  As  a  pasture  grass,  it  is  not  well  liked  by 
stock,  but  it  forms  a  sod  more  quickly  than  Kentucky  blue 
grass,  stands  pasturing  well,  and  yields  an  abundance  of 
succulent  feed.  It  is  not  generally  sown  except  on  soils  |hat 
are  too  heavy,  wet,  or  acid  for  timothy  or  blue  grass  to 
thrive.  Redtop  is  objectionable  in  timothy  meadows  be- 
cause it  lowers  the  market  value  of  the  timothy  hay. 

404.  Soils.     Redtop  will  grow  on  a  wide  range  of  soils, 
though  it  does  best  in  moist  locations.     On  poor,  undrained, 
or  acid  soils  it  has  no  superior.     It  produces  a  thick  sod  and 
adds  much  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil,  so  that  it  is  of  great 
value  in  building  up  poor  clay  land; 

405.  Seeding.    The   rate   of   seeding   depends   on   the 
quality  of  the  seed  and  whether  it  is  sown  alone  or  in  a  mix- 
ture.   When  recleaned  seed  is  sown,  from  12  to  15  pounds  to 
the  acre  are  sufficient  when  sown  alone,  or  6  to  8  pounds 
when  sown  with  other  grasses.     Redtop  is  commonly  mixed 
with  timothy  and  alsike  clover.     The  seed  is  sown  in  the 
same  manner  as  timothy  seed,  but  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  cover  it  too  deeply.     Redtop  seed  is  cut  and  thrashed  in 
the  same  manner  as  timothy  seed;  most  of  the  redtop  seed 
is  produced  in  southern  Illinois. 

406.  Related  Plants.    A  variety  of  redtop  called  creep- 
ing bent,  Agrostis  alba  vulgaris,  is  grown  to  some  extent  in 
the  Eastern  states.     It  makes  a  finer,  more  slender  growth 
than  the  ordinary  redtop  which  is  grown  for  hay,  grows 
closer  to  the  ground,  and  is  better  adapted  for  use  in  pas- 
tures and  lawns.    There  are  all  gradations  in  form  between 


324 


FIELD  CROPS 


creeping  bent  and  redtop.  Another  closely  related  grass 
which  is  grown  in  lawns,  on  heavy  clay  soils,  and  in  places 
where  Kentucky  blue  grass  does  not  grow  well,  is  Rhode 
Island  bent,  Agrostis  canina,  a  small  form  with  a  creeping 

habit.  Neither  of  these 
grasses  is  of  any  value 
for  hay  production. 

ORCHARD  GRASS 

407.  Origin  and  De- 
scription. Orchard  grass, 
Dactylis  glomerata,  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  but  is 
now  found  quite  gener- 
ally, though  sparingly, 
throughout  the  United 
States  except  in  the  semi- 
arid  sections.  It  is  rather 
more  deeply  rooted  than 
timothy,  the  roots  often 
penetrating  to  a  depth  of 
at  least  2  feet.  The  plant 
grows  in  tufts  or  bunches 
and  does  not  spread  by 
creeping  rootstocks.  The 
culms  are  from  2  to  3 
feet  tall.  The  culm 
leaves  are  rather  scanty, 

but  are  sometimes  as  much  as  2  feet  in  length,  and  are 
broader  than  the  leaves  of  most  other  grasses.  The  flowers 
are  produced  in  June,  about  the  same  time  as  those  of  red 
clover.  They  are  borne  in  a  one-sided  panicle,  the  spike- 
lets  being  in  dense  clusters  and  containing  three  or  four 


Fig.   101.     Orchard  grass,  a  hay  grass  of 
value   in   some   localities. 


ORCHARD  GRASS  325 

flowers.  The  grain  is  enclosed  in  the  flowering  glume; 
it  is  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  while  the  flowering 
glume  is  one-sixth  of  an  inch  or  more  in  length. 

408.  Importance.    Orchard  grass  is  not  commonly  grown 
in  this  country  except  along  the  southern  border  of  the 
timothy  region.     In  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
and  Arkansas,  it  is  quite  a  prominent  hay  grass.     It  is  also 
grown  to  some  extent  along  the  Pacific  Coast.     It  produces 
a  rather  light  yield  of  hay,  while  its  tendency  to  crowd  out 
other  grasses  and  yet  grow  in  bunches  which  do  not  fully 
occupy  the  ground  make  it  of  doubtful  worth  where  timothy 
will  succeed.     Its  habit  of  maturing  with  red  clover  makes  it 
of  value  for  growing  in  mixtures  with  that  legume.     It  will 
thrive  in  drier  and  shadier  locations  than  redtop,  and  is  of 
value  in  open  woodland  pastures.     Orchard  grass  grows 
best  on  fertile,  well-drained  soils.     It  stands  drouth  better 
than  timothy,  though  it  requires  rather  more  moisture  for 
its  best  development  than  does  that  grass. 

409.  Seeding.    The  seed  of  orchard  grass  weighs  from 
14  to  22  pounds  to  the  bushel,  according  to  its  freedom  from 
chaff.     It  is  usually  high  in  germination.     It  is  sown  in  the 
same  manner  as  timothy,  though  seeding  by  hand  is  the  com- 
mon practice  when  it  is  sown  alone.    The  rate  of  seeding 
when  grown  for  hay  is  about  35  pounds  to  the  acre;  when 
sown  in  mixtures,  orchard  grass  makes  up  only  a  small  part 
of  the  mixture,  not  more  than  6  or  8  pounds  being  used. 
Most  of  the  seed  is  produced  in  a  small  section  in  the  vicinity 
of  Louisville,  Kentucky.    The  crop  is  cut  with  a  binder  as 
soon  as  the  heads  turn  light  yellow,  and  the  bundles  are  set 
up  in  small  shocks  to  cure.    When  cured,  in  about  two  or 
three  weeks,  the  seed  is  thrashed  with  an  ordinary  thrashing 
machine  which  has  been  provided  with  special  screens. 

410.  Utilization.    When  grown  for  hay,  orchard  grass 


326 


FIELD  CROPS 


should  be  cut  when  it  is  in  flower,  for  it  rapidly  decreases  in 
palatability  and  food  value  after  that  time.  The  yield  of 
hay  is  fairly  good,  and  the  hay,  if  cut  at  the  right  time,  is 
valuable  for  feeding.  It  is  seldom  or  never  found  on  the 
market,  since  only  small  quantities  are  produced,  but  where 
it  is  known,  it  is  well  regarded.  Orchard  grass  produces 
an  abundance  of  basal  leaves  early  in  the  spring,  so  that  it  is 
valuable  for  early  pasture.  As  it  does  not  form  a  close  turf, 
it  does  not  stand  pasturing  as  well  as  blue  grass  or  even 
timothy;  it  lasts  only  three  or  four 
years  when  closely  grazed. 

BERMUDA  GRASS 

411.  Origin  and  Description.  Ber- 
muda grass,  Cynodon  dactylon,  was  in- 
troduced into  southern  United  States 
from  the  West  Indies  about  two  hun- 
dred years  ago;  it  is  a  native  of  tropical 
and  semitropical  countries  throughout 
the  world.  It  is  a  low-growing  grass 
which  spreads  by  means  of  running 
stems  both  above  and  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  forming  a  thick  sod 
which  is  not  easily  injured  by  grazing,  tramping,  or  clip- 
ping. The  culms  grow  from  6  inches  to  2  feet  high, 
the  latter  height  being  reached  only  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions.  Though  the  culms  bear  few  leaves,  the 
numerous  running  stems  are  leafy,  and  the  total  quantity 
of  herbage  which  is  produced  is  large.  The  flowers  are 
borne  in  one-flowered  spikelets  in  one-sided  spikes,  the  culms 
producing  from  three  to  five  of  these  spikes.  The  seed  sel- 
dom matures  in  the  United  States,  most  of  that  which  is 
sown  being  imported  from  Australia. 


Fig.  102.  Bermuda 
grass. 


BERMUDA  GRASS  327 

412.  Cultivation.    Bermuda  grass  will  grow  on  almost 
any  soil,  though  it  makes  a  stronger  and  more  vigorous 
growth  on  fertile  loam  than  on  any  other  type.     It  requires 
a  liberal  supply  of  water  for  its  best  growth  and  is  not  par- 
ticularly resistant  to  long  drouths.     Unlike  blue  grass,  how- 
ever, it  continues  to  grow  during  the  hottest  months  of 
summer,  even  though  drouths  occur.     As  the  seed  is  scarce 
and  high  in  price,  new  fields  are  usually  started  from  small 
pieces  of  sod.    The  sod  is  plowed  just  beneath  the  surface, 
not  more  than  2  or  3  inches  deep,  and  the  strips  are  then  cut 
or  broken  into  small  pieces.    These  soon  take  root  when 
planted  and  the  running  stems  form  a  solid  turf  by  the  end 
of  the  season.     In  making  lawns,  it  is  customary  to  set  these 
pieces  of  sod  about  a  foot  apart  each  way  in  well-prepared 
soil.    In  field  culture,  the  land  need  not  be  so  carefully  pre- 
pared and  the  sods  may  be  placed  at  greater  intervals.    If 
they  are  dropped  in  furrows  18  inches  to  2  feet  apart  each 
way  and  covered  by  plowing  the  furrows  shut  or  by  dragging, 
they  will  soon  start  into  growth  and  will  completely  cover 
the  ground  in  a  year.    The  best  time  to  do  this  planting  is 
in  the  spring  after  danger  of  frost  is  past.     Hay  meadows 
are  improved  by  plowing  or  disking  every  few  years  and 
then  harrowing  down  level  again,  for  they  are  likely  to  become 
sodbound  and  unproductive  if  left  undisturbed. 

413.  Uses.    Bermuda  grass  is  to  the  South  what  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  is  to  the  North,  the  most  important  pasture 
grass.     It  is  perhaps  not  quite  so  nutritious  as  blue  grass, 
but  it  produces  an  abundance  of  pasture  throughout  the 
summer  months  and  is  far  superior  to  any  other  Southern 
pasture  grass.     Its  principal  faults  are  that  it  is  slow  in 
starting  into  growth  in  the  spring  and  is  easily  killed  by 
frost  in  the  fall.    Bermuda  pasture,  however,  may  be  sup- 
plemented during  the  fall  and  spring  months  by  sowing  bur 


32S  FIELD  CROPS 

x 

clover  and  rescue  grass  seed  on  the  Bermuda  sod  in  the  early 
fall.  These  plants  start  into  .growth  about  the  time  the 
Bermuda  grass  ceases,  and  are  at  their  best  while  it  is  dor- 
mant. They  have  practically  completed  their  growth  in 
the  spring  when  Bermuda  grass  again  becomes  green;  where 
weather  conditions  are  favorable  this  combination  will 
furnish  pasture  practically  throughout  the  year. 

Bermuda  grass  is  unsurpassed  as  a  lawn  grass  in  the 
South,  though  its  late  start  in  the  spring  and  its  dead  appear- 
ance all  during  the  winter  are  objectionable.  It  is  a  profit- 
able hay  grass  only  on  the  better  class  of  soils;  on  moist, 
fertile  loams  it  will  produce  three  or  four  cuttings  of  hay 
during  the  season.  The  yield  of  the  separate  cuttings  is 
not  heavy,  but  the  total  yield  for  the  season  compares 
favorably  with  the  best  northern  hay  grasses,  and  the  hay 
is  of  good  quality.  Cutting  should  not  be  delayed  too  long, 
as  the  stems  soon  become  wiry  and  unpalatable.  As  Ber- 
muda grass  will  grow  on  light  sand,  on  clay  embankments, 
and  on  various  other  soils,  and  as  it  soon  forms  a  thick 
turf,  it  is  one  of  the  best  soil-binding  grasses  we  have.  It  is 
useful  in  preventing  sands  from  blowing  and  banks  and  rough 
fields  from  washing. 

414.  Eradication.  A  grass  which  grows  as  freely  from 
running  stems  and  which  is  as  vigorous  as  Bermuda  grass  is 
naturally  somewhat  difficult  to  eradicate,  unless  its  habits  are 
well  understood.  Except  in  a  few  localities  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  the  United  States,  however,  it  does  not  pro- 
duce seed,  and  so  the  problem  is  somewhat  simplified.  The 
sod  may  be  killed  by  shallow  plowing,  not  more  than  2  inches 
deep,  either  in  hot,  dry  weather  in  summer  or  just  before  a 
cold  spell  in  winter.  In  the  first  case,  it  dries  out,  and  in 
the  second,  it  is  killed  by  frost.  As  this  grass  will  not  grow 
in  shade,  it  is  easily  killed  by  planting  the  field  to  an  annual 


JOHNSON  GRASS  329 

crop  which  will  make  a  dense  growth,  as  oats,  sorghum,  or 
cowpeas.  Thorough  plowing  and  good  preparation,  so  as 
to  insure  a  quick,  vigorous  growth  of  the  planted  crop,  are 
necessary.  Sorghum  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best  smother 
crops,  as  it  grows  rapidly  and  makes  a  dense  shade  if  planted 
thickly. 

JOHNSON  GRASS 

415.  Origin  and  Description.   Johnson  grass,  Andropogon 
halapense,  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe  and  Asia  which  is 
now   common  throughout   the   Southern   states.     It   is   a 
strong,    vigorous-growing    grass    with    large    underground 
stolons,  by  which  it  spreads  rapidly.     It  produces  culms 
from  4  to  7  feet  high,  with  numerous  leaves  1  foot  or  more 
long  and  %  to  1  inch  wide.    The  flowers  are  borne  in  panicles, 
resembling  those  of  sorghum,  to  which  it  is  closely  related. 
In  fact,  the  entire  plant  except  the  perennial  underground 
stems  closely  resembles  a  small  plant  of  sorghum.     The 
spikelets  are  in  pairs  at  the  nodes  or  in  threes  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches,  only  one  of  these  spikelets  containing  a  perfect 
flower.    The  grain  is  free  from  the  glumes  and  is  similar  in 
appearance  to  sorghum  seed.     The  plant  seeds  freely  in  all 
the  Southern  states  and,  as  it  spreads  rapidly  by  both  the 
stolons  and  the  seeds,  it  is  generally  considered  one  of  the 
worst  weeds  of  that  section. 

416.  Importance.    While  Johnson  grass  is  a  bad  weed,  it 
is  also  one  of  the  best  Southern  hay  plants.     It  will  grow 
on  a  wide  range  of  soils  and  in  all  locations,  thriving  where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  water,  yet  enduring  drouth  well. 
It  does  not  grow  during  a  drouth,  but  starts  at  once  into 
growth  when  rains  come.     It  yields  two  or  three  good  crops 
of  hay  during  the  season,  which,  if  cut  at  the  proper  time,  are 
palatable  and  nutritious.     It  is  of  some  value  as  a  pasture 


330  FIELD  CROPS 

crop,  though  the  pasture  is  of  short  duration,  because  the 
grass  does  not  stand  grazing  well.  Like  other  grasses  with 
strong  stolons,  it  produces  larger  yields  of  pasture  or  hay  if 
the  sod  is  broken  every  two  or  three  years.  The  growth  of 
the  plant  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  states,  though  it  is  also  found  to  some  extent  in 
California.  It  is  not  a  troublesome  weed  where  the  ground 
ordinarily  freezes  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  or  more. 

417.  Eradication.  To  eradicate  Johnson  grass,  it  is 
necessary  to  prevent  it  from  producing  seed  and  to  guard 
against  the  introduction  of  seed  to  the  field  by  hay,  manure, 
or  any  other  carrier.  The  easiest  method  of  eradicating  it  is 
to  pasture  the  field  for  a  year  or  two,  when  the  roots  will  all 
be  close  to  the  surface.  Then  if  the  sod  is  broken  late  in  the 
fall  very  shallow,  not  more  than  3  or  4  inches,  so  that  these 
roots  are  just  turned  over,  many  of  them  will  be  killed  by 
frost.  In  the  spring,  the  land  should  be  worked  frequently 
enough  with  the  disk  harrow  to  prevent  all  top  growth. 
About  the  first  of  June,  it  should  be  planted  to  cotton  or 
some  other  crop  which  can  be  given  thorough  cultivation, 
to  prevent  top  growth  from  the  few  Johnson  grass  roots  which 
remain,  or  some  rank-growing  crop  like  cowpeas  may  be 
sown  to  smother  out  the  grass.  Another  method  which  is 
recommended  is  to  plow  the  land  thoroughly  in  the  spring 
and  cultivate  it  at  intervals  during  the  spring  and  summer, 
thus  smothering  the  roots  by  preventing  them  from  produ- 
cing top  growth.  By  this  method,  the  use  of  the  land  is  lost 
for  a  year.  Thorough  cultivation  and  a  good  rotation  will 
most  effectively  keep  Johnson  grass  in  check,  as  they  will 
any  other  weed,  and  it  is  an  open  question  whether  the 
Southern  farmer  will  not  yet  find  that  Johnson  grass  is  a 
very  useful  plant  and  one  which  he  has  little  reason  to  fear. 


BROME  GRASS 


331 


BROME  GRASS 

418.  Origin    and    Description.    Brome    grass,    Bromus 
inermis,  is  a  native  of  Europe,  from  which  country  it  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date.    It  is  variously  known  as  Russian  brome,  smooth 
brome  grass,  and  awnless  brome  grass.     It  is  a  deep-rooting, 
stoloniferous  grass,  with  an  abundance  of  root  leaves  and  a 
good  supply  of  culm  leaves.     The  culms  are  erect,  from 

to  4  feet  tall,  bearing  a  spreading 
panicle  from  6  to  10  inches  long. 
The  spikelets  are  about  1  inch 
long,  one-fourth  as  broad,  and 
contain  several  flowers.  The 
seeds  are  three-eighths  to  one- 
half  inch  long,  and  are  awnless. 
The  grain  or  caryopsis  is  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  is  brown  in  color. 

419.  Importance.  Brome  grass 
is  of  such  recent  introduction  in- 
to this  country  that  its  value  is 
not   yet    well    understood.      It 
seems  to  be  unquestionably  the 
best  tame  pasture  grass  for  the 
Great    Plains    region    and    the 
Pacific  Northwest,  and  it  is  of 

more  or  less  value  throughout  the  North  Central  and 
Northeastern  states.  It  will  probably  be  many  years, 
however,  before  it  replaces  Kentucky  blue  grass  to  any 
extent  in  the  Northeastern  states  as  a  pasture  grass,  or 
timothy  as  a  hay  grass.  It  does  not  thrive  in  the  South  and 
should  not  be  planted  farther  south  than  central  Kansas, 


Fig.      103.     Brome 
Note  the  running  rootstocks. 


332  FIELD  CROP 8 

except  at  high  elevations.  Its  numerous  deep  roots  enable 
it  to  withstand  drouth  better  than  any  of  our  other  culti- 
vated grasses,  which  explains  its  value  in  the  Great  Plains 
and  Intermountain  districts.  It  has  been  cultivated  for 
many  centuries  in  southern  and  central  Russia,  in  a  climate 
very  similar  to  our  Great  Plains  region. 

420.  Cultivation.    The  method  of  seeding  is  not  different 
from  that  which  is  common  with  timothy.     It  does  much 
better  on  loam  or  clay  soils  than  on  those  of  a  sandy  nature. 
It  grows  fairly  well  on  sandy  soils,  however,  when  once 
established,  the  difficulty  being  to  prevent  injury  from  blow- 
ing sands  until  a  sod  is  formed.     The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is 
from  15  to  20  pounds  to  the  acre  when  sown  alone;  when  sown 
in  mixtures,  6  to  10  pounds  are  sufficient.     Spring  seeding  is 
most  commonly  practiced,  though  the  grass  may  be  sown  in 
the  fall  with  winter  wheat  if  conditions  are  favorable.     The 
seed  crop  is  cut  with  the  binder  and  is  shocked  and  thrashed 
like  any  grain  crop.     Yields  of  from  400  to  500  pounds  of 
seed  to  the  acre  are  frequently  obtained.     The  stubble  may 
be  cut  for  hay,  as  most  of  the  leaves  are  near  the  base  of  the 
stalk  and  are  left  by  the  binder. 

In  permanent  brome  grass  meadows,  the  sodbound  con- 
dition which  is  likely  to  develop  may  be  prevented  by 
thorough  disking  without  plowing  at  intervals  of  a  year  or 
two.  Pastures  will  also  be  improved  by  disking.  There  is 
some  complaint  of  difficulty  in  eradicating  brome  grass  when 
it  is  desired  to  plant  the  land  to  a  new  crop,  but  this  is  largely 
due  to  poor  plowing  and  indifferent  cultivation.  Turning 
the  sod  completely  over  so  that  none  of  it  is  exposed  to  the 
surface,  followed  by  the  growth  of  a  cultivated  crop,  will 
usually  be  effective  in  preventing  the  growth  of  this  grass. 

421.  Uses.    As  previously  stated,  the  best  use  of  brome 
grass  is  for  the  production  of  pasturage  in  the  Great  Plains 


THE  WHEAT  GRASSES  333 

and  Rocky  Mountain  states.  It  is  useful  there  also  as  a  hay 
grass,  particularly  for  the  first  two  years  after  seeding,  for  it 
produces  an  abundance  of  hay  until  it  becomes  sodbound.  It 
then  makes  a  good  growth  of  root  leaves,  so  that  it  is  valuable 
for  pasture,  but  throws  up  few  flowering  stems.  Farther 
east,  it  is  perhaps  better  as  a  pasture  than  as  a  hay  grass. 
It  is  particularly  recommended  in  the  Central  states  for 
planting  with  alfalfa  for  pasture.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
palatable  of  grasses,  cattle  eating  it  ,in  preference  to  blue 
grass.  It  is  also  of  value  in  improving  worn-out  lands, 
since  it  produces  a  large  quantity  of  stems  and  roots  and  adds 
materially  to  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.  The  principal 
difficulty  in  sowing  brome  grass  is  that  it  is  not  often  possible 
to  obtain  seed  which  is  free  from  quack  grass. 

422.  Related  Plants.     Cheat   or   chess,    Bromus  secali- 
nus,  is  an  annual  grass  which  is  a  common  weed  in  grain 
fields,  particularly  in  winter  wheat  and  other  winter  grains. 
It  makes  such  a  vigorous  growth  in  fields  of  winter  grain 
where  the  stand  is  thin  as  to  give  rise  to  the  somewhat 
common  belief  that  " wheat  turns  to  cheat."    The  grass  is 
of  little  value  for  hay.     Rescue  grass,  or  Schrader's  brome 
grass,  Bromus  unioloides,  is  of  some  value  in  the  South  as  a 
winter  pasture  grass  (Sec.  413).     There  are  numerous  other 
species  of  Bromus  in  various  sections  of  the  United  States, 
but  none  of  them  are  of  apparent  value. 

MISCELLANEOUS  GRASSES 

423.  The  Wheat  Grasses.    The  wheat  grasses  are  of 
considerable  value  as  pasture  grasses  throughout  the  northern 
Great  Plains  and  the  Pacific  Northwest.     Slender  wheat 
grass,  Agropyron  tenerum,  is  grown  to  some  extent  as  a  hay 
grass  in  Washington  and  Oregon.     It  is  particularly  adapted 
to  dry-land  farming.     Another  native  grass  of  this  region, 


334  FIELD  CROPS 

Agropyron  diver  gens,  or  bunch  grass,  is  also  worthy  of 
cultivation  on  the  dry  lands.  Farther  east,  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region,  western  wheat  grass,  Agropyron  occi- 
dentale,  is  grown  to  some  extent  for  hay  production.  Quack 
grass,  Agropyron  repens,  is  sometimes  recommended  for  hay 
or  pasture,  but  its  numerous  running  rootstocks  make  it 
so  difficult  to  eradicate  that  it  should  not  be  sown  where  any 
other  grass  will  grow.  None  of  the  other  wheat  grasses  have 
this  characteristic,  and  they  may  be  sown  without  fear  that 
they  will  become  pests. 

424.  The  Fescues.     Meadow  fescue,  Festuca  pratensis, 
and  tall   fescue,    Festuca   pratensis   elatior,    are    grown  in 
certain  limited  areas  as  hay  grasses.     In  the  timothy  region, 
they  can  not  compete  with  that  grass,  for  they  do  not  yield 
as  well  and  the  seed  is  more  expensive.     Meadow  fescue  is 
grown  quite  commonly  in  northeastern  Kansas,  while  both 
tall  and  meadow  fescue  are  grown  in  eastern  Washington  and 
northern  Idaho.     These  grasses  are  often  recommended  for 
sowing  in  meadow  and  pasture  mixtures,  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  have  any  definite  place  in  this  country.     In  England 
and  quite  generally  throughout  Europe,  they  are  among 
the  most  valuable  grasses. 

425.  The    Rye    Grasses.     English    rye    grass,    Lolium 
perenne,  and   its   near  relative,  Italian  rye  grass,  Lolium 
italicum,  are  among  the  most  popular  and  important  grasses 
in  Europe,  but  they  have  never  come  into  favor  in  the 
United  States.    They  are  grown  to  some  extent  on  the 
Pacific  Coast,  but  elsewhere  they  are  little  known.    They 
do  not  yield  heavily,  but  the  herbage  they  produce  is  so 
palatable  and  nutritious  that  they  appear  to  be  worthy  of 
more  extended  trial  as  meadow  grasses  where  there  is  an 
abundant  rainfall. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  335 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

As  many  of  the  important  perennial  grasses  as  possible  should  be 
studied  in  the  field  or  in  the  laboratory.  If  studied  in  the  field,  their 
characteristics  should  be  carefully  noted,  particularly  those  that  make 
them  of  importance  agriculturally.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
habits  of  growth,  leafiness,  seed  habits,  and  turf  -forming  habits. 
Descriptions  of  the  roots,  stems,  leaves,  inflorescence,  and  seeds  of  the 
important  grasses  of  the  neighborhood  should  be  prepared.  If  fresh 
specimens  are  not  available,  each  student  should  be  provided  with  a 
dried  plant  which  has  previously  been  prepared  by  the  instructor. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

402,  Canada  Bluegrass. 

361,  Meadow  Fescue. 
Beal's  Grasses  of  North  America. 
Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America. 
Shaw's  Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them. 
Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States. 
Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ANNUAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 

426.  Introduction.     Several    annual    grasses    are    quite 
generally  grown  as  forage  crops,  while  in  some  sections 
large  acreages  of  the  cereals  are  cut  for  hay.  In  addition,  a 
large  part  of  the  straw  and  stover  which  is  a  by-product  of 
grain  growing  is  fed  to  stock.     The  principal  annual  plants 
of  the  grass  family  which  are  grown  for  forage  are  the  millets, 
the  sorghums,  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  barley.     The  Census 
figures  for  1909  show  that  millet  was  grown  on  1,113,000 
acres  in  the  United  States,  with  a  production  of  1,540,000 
tons  of  hay;  that  grains  cut  green  for  hay  were  grown  on 
4,254,000  acres,  producing  5,278,000  tons;  and  that  coarse 
forage  was  grown  on  4,093,000  acres,  with  a  total  production 
of  10,073,000  tons.     The  "grains  cut  green  for  hay"  include 
not  only  the  cereals  but  also  the  annual  leguminous  crops 
such  as  cowpeas  and  soy  beans.     The  coarse  forage  includes 
corn  and  the  sorghums  grown  specially  for  the  production  of 
forage. 

THE  SORGHUMS 

427.  Origin    and    Description.     Sorghum,    Andropogon 
halepensi,  is  a  native  of  Africa  and  southern  Asia.      The 
forage  sorghums  are  closely  related  to  the  grain  sorghums 
(Sec.  320)  and  to  broomcorn  (Sec.  326),  for  all  these  plants 
have  been  developed  from  the  same  parent  stock.    They 
differ  from  the  other  members  of  this  group  in  having 
abundant  sweet  juice,  while  the  pith  of  the  grain  sorghums 
and  of  broomcorn  is  dry  or  only  slightly  juicy.     The  plant 
grows  from  5  to  10  or  more  feet  tall,  with  numerous  broad 


IMPORTANCE  OF  SORGHUM 


337 


leaves.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  a  terminal  panicle,  varying 
in  size  and  form  with  the  variety.  The  seeds  are  red  or 
reddish  yellow  in  color,  protruding  somewhat  from  between 
the  dark  red  or  black  glumes. 

428.  Importance.    The  sweet  sorghums  are  grown  quite 
generally  for  forage  in  the  South  and  Southwest  and  to  a  less 


Fig.  104.     Sorghum  grown  in  rows  for  forage. 

extent  in  other  portions  of  the  country.  In  the  Central 
states,  corn  is  the  principal  coarse  forage  crop,  and  sorghum 
occupies  a  minor  place,  though  it  is  grown  in  a  limited  way. 
No  accurate  figures  on  the  total  acreage  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  sorghum  for  forage  are  obtainable,  but  in  Kansas, 
where  the  crop  is  perhaps  more  important  than  in  any  other 
state,  500,000  acres  are  grown  annually.  It  is  quite  probable 


338  FIELD  CROPS 

that  not  less  than  two  million  acres  of  sorghum  are  grown 
in  the  United  States  every  year. 

429.  Culture.    The   methods   of  growing   sorghum   for 
forage  are  not  different  from  the  methods  of  growing  corn  for 
fodder  or  for  silage,  except  that  the  sorghums  are  always 
planted  in  drills  rather  than  in  hills.    The  crop  grows  well 
on  a  wide  range  of  soils,  though  it  does  best  on  those  of  more 
than  average  fertility.     The  plant  has  a  vigorous  root  system, 
which  enables  it  to  use  quick-acting  fertilizers  to  good  advan- 
tage. 

The  seed  may  be  planted  with  the  corn  planter,  using 
special  plates,  or  with  the  grain  drill,  using  all  or  only  a  part 
of  the  holes.  When  grown  in  rows  and  cultivated,  the  crop 
is  cut  with  the  corn  binder  and  handled  in  every  way  like 
corn.  When  sown  in  close  rows,  the  plants  make  a  fine 
growth  which  can  be  cured  readily  into  hay.  The  rate  of 
seeding  in  rows  wide  apart  is  from  8  to  20  pounds  to  the  acre; 
when  sown  with  a  grain  drill  and  not  cultivated,  50  or  75 
pounds  of  seed  are  required;  while  for  broadcast  seeding  for 
hay,  as  occasionally  practiced,  75  to  100  pounds  are  neces- 
sary. The  more  common  method  is  to  sow  in  wide  drills 
and  cultivate  like  corn.  The  seed  should  not  be  planted  till 
after  corn  planting  is  finished,  since  it  will  germinate  only 
in  warm  weather.  In  some  sections,  cowpeas  or  soy  beans 
are  planted  with  sorghum  for  hay  or  for  silage,  and  millet 
is  occasionally  sown  with  it  for  hay  production.  The 
methods  of  handling  for  fodder  and  for  silage  are  not  dif- 
ferent from  those  in  common  use  with  the  corn  crop. 

430.  Uses.    The  principal  use  of  sorghum  is  as  a  coarse 
forage  crop  to  take  the  place  of  corn  in  sections  where  the 
climate  is  too  dry  for  the  successful  production  of  that  crop. 
The  yield  of  forage  produced  by  sorghum  in  the  South,  even 
where  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  is  usually  larger  than  that 


THE  USES  OF  SORGHUM  339 

produced  by  corn,  and  the  prevailing  opinion  is  that  it  can 
be  cured  more  readily.  The  feeding  value  of  sorghum  fodder 
is  not  as  high  as  that  of  corn  fodder  which  is  well  eared,  but 
it  is  higher  than  that  of  corn  stover,  and  the  sorghum  is 
more  palatable.  In  the  North,  sorghum  is  more  often  used 
as  a  soiling  crop  than  as  dry  fodder.  It  is  readily  eaten  by 
all  kinds  of  stock,  and  is  valuable  during  the  late  summer 
and  early  fall  months  for  supplementing  blue  grass  pastures, 
which  are  usually  short  at  that  time. 

Sorghum  is  used  to  some  extent  as  silage,  though  the 
silage  is  not  so  good  as  that  which  is  made  from  well-matured 
corn.  It  is,  however,  succulent  and  palatable,  and  when  sup- 
plemented with  good  hay  and  cotton-seed  meal  or  some  other 
concentrate,  it  is  an  excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows  and  other 
classes  of  stock  during  the  winter  months.  It  is  also  a 
valuable  annual  pasture  crop,  supplying  an  abundance  of 
feed  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  Cattle  should  be  pastured 
on  it  rather  sparingly  at  first,  for  there  is  some  danger  from 
poisoning,  particularly  if  the  growth  has  been  stunted  from 
drouth  or  frost.  There  is  no  danger  from  feeding  sorghum 
fodder,  as  the  poisonous  principle  seems  to  disappear  in 
curing.  Another  use  of  sorghum  is  in  clearing  the  land  of 
weeds.  For  this  purpose  it  should  be  sown  in  close  rows. 
As  the  growth  of  the  crop  is  slow  at  first,  the  land  should  be 
harrowed  once  or  twice  in  the  direction  of  the  rows  about  the 
time  the  sorghum  comes  up,  in  order  to  check  the  weeds  and 
give  it  a  chance.  If  this  is  done,  it  will  soon  start  into  rapid 
growth  and  make  a  dense  shade  which  is  effective  in  smother- 
ing out  all  other  plants. 

431.  Sorghum  Sirup.  When  first  introduced,  sorghum 
was  grown  only  for  the  production  of  sirup  and  great  hopes 
were  entertained  that  it  could  also  be  used  for  the  economical 
production  of  sugar.  It  is  possible  to  make  sugar  of  good 


340 


FIELD  CROPS 


quality  from  sorghum  juice,  but  the  process  is  too  expensive 
to  make  it  commercially  profitable.  The  production  of 
sorghum  sirup  has  decreased  rapidly  in  recent  years,  owing 
to  the  manufacture  of  glucose  and  other  sirups.  In  Kansas, 
where  500,000  acres  of  forage  sorghum  are  grown  annually, 

only  13,000  acres  are 
used  for  sirup  pro- 
duction. 

432.  Varieties. 
The  principal  vari- 
ety of  sorghum 
grown  in  the  North 
is  Amber,  an  early- 
maturing,  compara- 
tively small  sort 
with  an  open, 
spreading  panicle, 
shining  black 
glumes,  and  reddish- 
yellow  seeds.  The 
seeds  are  almost  en- 
tirely included  with- 
in the  glumes,  so 
that  the  apparent 
color  of  the  head  is 
black.  The  Orange, 
a  somewhat  later 
variety  with  lighter- 
colored  glumes  and  a  more  compact  panicle,  is  less 
grown  now  than  formerly.  In  the  South,  the  most  popular 
and  productive  variety  is  Sumac  or  Redtop,  with  a 
compact  head,  red  seeds,  and  very  short  dark  red  or 
black  glumes.  The  red  seeds  protrude  from  between  the 


Fig.  105.     The  spreading   panicle  of  Amber  sor- 
ghum, the  best  early  variety  for  the  North. 


THE  FOXTAIL  MILLETS 


341 


glumes,  so  that  the  head  appears  to  be  dark  red  in  color. 
Gooseneck,  a  variety  with  large  heads  borne  on  a  recurved 
peduncle,  so  that  the  head  is  drooping  instead  of  erect,  has 
been  widely  recommended  for  sirup  production  in  the  South. 
It  is  late  in  maturing  and  is 
inferior  to  Sumac  for  the  pro- 
duction of  forage. 

THE  FOXTAIL  MILLETS 

433.  Origin  and  Description. 

The  term  "  millet, "  as  already 
noted  (Sec.  335),  is  applied  to  a 
number  of  annual  grasses,  even 
the  sorghums  being  known  by 
this  name  in  some  countries.  In 
the  present  discussion  it  is 
applied  particularly  to  what  is 
known  as  the  foxtail  millets, 
Chaetochloa  italica.  This  plant 
has  long  been  cultivated  in  China 
and  other  portions  of  Asia,  where 
it  is  used  as  food  grain  as  well 
as  forage.  It  is  probable  that 
the  original  type  is  a  native  of 
southeastern  Asia,  though  some 
botanists  hold  the  opinion  that 
all  the  varieties  have  been  de- 


rig.  106.  The  compact  pan- 
icle of  Sumac  sorghum,  a  popu- 
lar variety  in  the  South. 


veloped  from  the  common  foxtail,  Chaetochloa  viridis,  which 
grows  wild  generally  throughout  the  North  Temperate 
zone.  The  foxtail  millets  are  annual  plants  with  fibrous 
roots  and  slender  stems,  usually  growing  from  3  to  4  feet 
high.  The  inflorescence  is  a  close  spike,  from  4  to  8  inches 
long.  The  spikelets  are  one-flowered,  with  bristles  at  the 


342  FIELD  CROPS 

base,  which  are  usually  purplish  in  color.  The  grain,  which 
thrashes  free  from  the  scales  or  chaff,  is  usually  yellow  or 
purple. 

434.  Importance.    The  millets  are  quick-growing  plants 
which  are  grown  more  generally  as  a  catch  crop  than  for  any 
other  purpose.     They  do  not  grow  well  until  the  hot  weather 
of  summer,  but  if  planted  in  June  or  July  they  will  make  a 
hay  crop  in  six  or  eight  weeks.    They  are  usually  sown  where 
some  earlier-planted  crop  has  failed,  as  where  fall-sown  grain 
has  winter-killed,  or  where  corn  has  not  germinated  or  has 
been  destroyed  by  insects  or  rodents.     As  they  are  decidedly 
drouth-resistant,  they  grow  well  in  dry  seasons  or  in  regions 
of  slight  rainfall.     The  area  sown  to  millet  in  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  1910  Census,  was  1,113,000  acres. 

435.  Culture.    Millet  should  not  be  sown  till  the  weather 
is  warm,  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of  June  in  the  Northern 
states,  and  in  May  and  June  in  the  South.     Millet  grows  well 
on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  succeeds  better  on  sandy  loam  than 
on  heavy  clays.     As  the  seed  is  small,  the  ground  should  be 
well  prepared.     The  plant  has  abundant  feeding  roots  and 
will  grow  fairly  well  on  poor  soil.     Like  other  forage  crops, 
however,  it  makes  a  much  more  abundant  growth  on  fertile 
land  and  responds  readily  to  applications  of  manures  and 
fertilizers.    The  seed  is  usually  sown  broadcast  and  har- 
rowed in,  though  it  may  be  sown  with  the  grain  drill.     The 
rate  of  seeding  for  grain  production  is  from  1  to  !}/£  pecks  to 
the  acre;  for  hay,  from  2  to  4  pecks  are  sown.     The  seed 
weighs  50  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

The  crop  is  ready  to  cut  for  hay  in  from  six  to  ten  weeks 
from  seeding,  depending  on  the  variety,  the  season,  and  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  The  best  hay  can  be  obtained  if  the  crop 


THE  CULTURE  OF  MILLET  343 

is  cut  about  the  time  the  plants  begin  to  bloom;  if  the  seed 
is  allowed  to  form,  there  is  some  decrease  in  palatability, 
and  the  hay  may  be  actually  injurious  to  horses.  The  hay 
is  slower  in  curing  than  timothy  hay,  for  the  growth  is  usually 


Fig.  107.     German  millet. 

rank  and  full  of  moisture.  When  grown  for  seed  production, 
the  crop  should  be  cut  before  it  is  fully  ripe  or  there  will  be 
some  loss  from  shattering.  It  may  be  harvested  with  the 
grain  binder  and  shocked  and  thrashed  like  other  grain. 
Twenty  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  a  fair  yield. 


344  FIELD  CROPS 

436.  Uses.     The   foxtail   millets  are   largely  grown  as 
emergency  forage  crops  to  supplement  the  usual  hay  and 
pasture  supply.    The  hay  is  useful  for  feeding  to  all  kinds  of 
animals  and  is  as  palatable  and  nutritious  as  that  made  from 
most  of  the  other  grasses.     Best  results  may  be  obtained 
when  it  does  not  make  up  the  entire  forage  ration  of  the 
animals,  but  is  fed  with  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  hay.     It 
should  be  fed  with  caution  to  horses,  for  if  fed  in  quantity 
it  is  likely  to  cause  serious  disorders  of  the  kidneys.     Fox- 
tail millet  is  also  useful  for  soiling  and  pasture  purposes, 
being  available  within  a  few  weeks  of  seeding.    The  seed  is 
not  usually  used  for  feeding  except  to  poultry,  though  where 
it  is  produced  in  quantity,  good  results  have  been  obtained 
from  feeding  it  to  hogs,  cattle,  and  sheep.     It  is  better  to 
grind  the  seed  before  feeding  to  hogs  and  cattle. 

437.  Varieties.    The  principal  varieties  of  foxtail  millet 
are  the  Common,  the  Hungarian,  and  the  German.     Com- 
mon millet  is  the  earliest  of  the  three  in  maturing.     The 
heads  are  rather  loose  at  the  base,  but  more  compact  toward 
the  top,  about  6  inches  long,  nodding,  green  in  color,  turning 
to  yellowish  brown  when  ripe.     The  seeds  are  large,  yellow, 
and  oval.     Hungarian  millet   is   later  in  maturing,   with 
shorter,  erect,  compact,  dark  purple  heads.     The  leaves  are 
narrower  and  darker  green  than  those  of  common  millet, 
and  the  plant  produces  rather  less  hay.     The  seeds  are 
purple,  but  there  are  usually  more  or  less  yellow,  partially 
matured  grains.     German  millet  does  not  stool  as  freely  as 
the  other  two  varieties,  is  later  in  maturing,  and  the  growth  is 
ranker  and  coarser.     It  yields  well,  but  the  stems  are  stiff 
and  woody  and  the  hay  is  less  palatable  than  that  from  either 
Common  or  Hungarian.     The  heads  are  6  to  8  inches  long, 
broader  than  those  of  Common  millet,  and  usually  nodding. 
The  seeds  are  small  and  round,  and  yellow  or  golden  in  color. 


BARNYARD  AND  PEARL  MILLETS 


345 


OTHER  MILLETS 

438.  Broomcorn  Millet.     This  class  of  millet  is  usually 
grown  for  the  grain  rather  than  for  forage,  since  the  stems 
are  stiff  and  hairy  and  the  hay  is  not  eaten  readily  by  stock. 
They  have  already  been  discussed  (Sec.  336). 

439.  Barnyard    Millet.    Barnyard     millet,  Echinochloa 
crus-galli,  is  the  common  barnyard  grass,  which  is  occasion- 
ally sown  for  forage.     It  is  a  weed 

everywhere  in  damp,  rich  soils. 
A  variety  of  it  from  Japan  has 
been  widely  advertised  by  seeds- 
men as  a  very  prolific  forage  crop, 
under  the  name  of  "billion  dollar 
grass."  It  grows  best  on  wet 
lands,  and  on  rich  soil  makes  a 
heavy  growth  of  hay  or  green 
fodder.  The  stems  are  rather 
coarse  and  the  crop  is  slower  in 
maturing  than  the  foxtail  millets, 
which  are  generally  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  it. 

440.  Pearl   Millet.     Pearl    or 
cat-tail  millet,  Pennisetum  spica- 
tum,   is    a    coarse   annual    grass 
which  is  grown  mostly  as  a  soiling 

crop  in  a  very  limited  way  on  rich  land  in  the  South. 
It  grows  from  6  to  10  feet  high,  producing  a  long,  compact 
spike  similar  in  appearance  to  the  common  cat-tail  of  the 
swamps,  hence  one  of  the  common  names.  It  suckers  freely, 
and  will  produce  two  or  three  crops  in  a  season  if  cut  for  soil- 
ing before  it  produces  heads.  The  young  growth  is  readily 
eaten  by  stock;  but  it  soon  becomes  woody  and  is  of  little 


Fig.  108.     Barnyard  grass,  or 
cocksfoot. 


346  FIELD  CROPS 

value  for  forage.  Though  widely  advertised  for  many  years 
under  numerous  attractive  names,  it  has  never  become 
popular,  and  has  no  apparent  advantages  over  sorghum  as  a 
soiling  and  fodder  crop.  It  is  not  adapted  to  planting  in  the 
North. 

THE  SMALL  GRAINS 

441.  According  to  the  Census  of  1910,  there  were  4,254,- 
000  acres  of  grains  cut  green  for  hay,  with  a  production  of 
5,278,000  tons.    This  total  is  largely  made  up  of  the  cereals, 
though  it  also  includes  some  of  the  annual  legumes,  such  as 
cowpeas  and  soy  beans.    About  one-half  of  this  area  is  in 
the  Pacific  states,  where  wheat  and  barley  are  the  principal 
annual  hay  crops.     Most  of  the  balance  is  in  the  Northern 
states,  where  oats  or  a  mixture  of  peas  and  oats  are  grown 
for  hay.    The  production,  uses,  and  values  of  these  various 
crops  for  hay  have  been  discussed  in  previous  chapters. 

CORN 

442.  A  large  part  of  the  corn  crop,  particularly  in  the 
Northern  states,  is  used  for  silage,  soiling,  fodder,  or  stover. 
The  production  and  uses  of  corn  in  these  various  forms  have 
been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  that  crop. 

TEOSINTE 

443.  A  plant  which  deserves  brief  mention  as  a  soiling 
and  coarse  fodder  crop  is   teosinte,    Euchlaena  mexicana. 
It  is  a  near  relative  of  corn,  but  is  adapted  only  to  semi- 
tropical  conditions.     In  the  Southern  states  it  will  produce 
a  greater  yield  of  green  fodder  than  any  other  plant.     It  will 
grow  to  a  height  of  8  or  10  feet,  but  should  be  cut  when  it  is 
about  5  feet  high.     It  will  then  make  a  second  crop  as  heavy 
as  the  first.    The  seed  should  be  planted  in  hills  4  or  5  feet 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  347 

apart  each  way,  and  the  crop  cultivated  like  corn.  Since 
the  plants  stool  abundantly,  1  to  3  pounds  of  seed  will  plant 
an  acre. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

246,  Saccharine  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

458,  The  Best  Two  Sweet  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

101,  Mulcts. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 
Hunt's  Cereals  in  America. 
Shaw's  Forage  Plants. 
Shaw's  Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo. 
Voorhees'  Forage  Crops. 
Spillman's  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  LEGUMES 

444.  What   Legumes   Are.     The   term    " legume"   was 
originally  applied  to  any  plant  belonging  to  the  order  Legum- 
inoseae,  the  word  being  the  Latin  name  for  the  kind  of  seed 
pod  which  is  borne  by  practically  all  plants  of  this  group. 
A  legume  in  the  original  sense  is  a  dry  pod  which  opens  along 
both  edges  or  sutures,  as  the  pod  of  the  pea  or  bean,  but  the 
term  is  now  applied  to  any  plant  which  belongs  to  this  order. 
Modern   botanists   have   divided   the   Leguminoseae   into 
several  families,  the  largest  and  most  important  of  which  is 
the  Papilionaceae,  in  which  are  included  practically  all  the 
cultivated  legumes.    This  latter  name  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  papilio,  a  butterfly,  from  the  resemblance  of  the 
flower  to  that  insect.     Among  the  useful  plants  of  this 
family  are  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  the  vetches,  peas,  beans,  soy 
beans,  cowpeas,  and  numerous  other  plants  of  less  impor- 
tance. 

445.  General  Characters.     The  legumes  are  decidedly 
variable,  yet  they  have  many  features  in  common.    The 
leaves  are  alternate  and  are  usually  compound.    The  flowers 
are  irregular  as  to  size  and  shape  of  the  petals,  but  are 
usually  more  or  less  butterfly-shaped.    There  are  commonly 
five  petals,  a  broad  upper  one  known  as  the  standard  or 
banner,  two  lateral  ones  (the  wings),  and  two  front  ones, 
often  more  or  less  united  (the  keel).    The  stamens  are 
usually  ten  in  number,  often  united,  or  nine  in  one  group 
and  one  alone.    The  pistil  is  single  and  the  ovary  is  one- 
celled,  but  may  contain  a  number  of  seeds.     The  fruit  is  a 


DIFFERENCES  IN  LEGUMES  349 

legume,  which  splits  open  along  both  edges  when  mature. 
The  seed  is  almost  entirely  filled  with  the  cotyledons  or 
seed  leaves,  and  on  germination  the  entire  seed  often  appears 
above  ground,  as  in  the  case  of  the  bean,  the  seed  splitting 
in  half  and  forming  the  two  cotyledons  of  the  young  plant. 

446.  Differences.    While  the  legumes  have  many  points 
in  common,  there  are  numerous  other  respects  in  which  they 
differ.    They  may  be  small  herbs,  shrubs,  vines,  or  trees. 
They  may  be  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial.    The  herbaceous 
plants  may  be  erect,  as  alfalfa;  prostrate,  as  white  clover; 
trailing  or  climbing,  as  the  vetches  and  some  forms  of  the 
cowpea.    The  leaves  may  be  made  up  of  three  or  many 
leaflets;  they  may  be  palmate,  all  the  leaflets  growing  from  a 
single  point,  as  in  the  clovers;  or  they  may  be  pinnate,  the 
leaflets  being  arranged  along  the  midrib,  as  in  alfalfa  and  the 
vetches.    The  flowers  may  be  of  many  sizes,  forms,  and 
colors,  and  may  be  arranged  in  numerous  forms.    They  may 
be  in  a  close  umbel,  or  head,  as  in  the  clovers,  or  in  a  spike  or 
raceme,  as  in  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover.    The  seed  pods  may 
be  long  and  straight,  as  in  the  pea;  more  or  less  curved,  as 
in  the  bean;  coiled,  as  in  alfalfa;  or  of  various  other  shapes 
and  sizes.    Though  the  roots  are  all  of  the  same  general  form, 
consisting  of  a  main  taproot  with  many  branches,  they  vary 
greatly  in  the  depth  to  which  they  penetrate  the  soil.    Some 
of  the  annual  species,  like  the  pea  and  the  bean,  do  not  root 
deeper  than  2  or  3  feet  under  ordinary  conditions,  while  the 
perennial  species  reach  a  great  depth,  particularly  alfalfa, 
which  under  favorable  conditions  may  go  down  from  20  to 
40  feet. 

447.  Why  the  Legumes  Are  Important.    The  legumes 
are  important  in  our  system  of  farming  for  several  reasons. 
They  supply  palatable  forage  which  is  especially  rich  in  pro- 
tein, much  richer  than  any  of  the  grasses.     They  also  furnish 


350 


FIELD  CROPS 


seeds  which  are  important  articles  of  food  for  man  and  for 
animals,  as  peas,  beans,  soy  beans,  and  cowpeas.  They  add 
variety  to  the  rotation;  and  as  they  are  seldom  attacked  by 
the  same  insects  and  diseases  which  trouble  that  other 
important  family  of  crop  plants,  the  grasses,  they  furnish 


Fig.   109.     Young  plant  of  red  clover,  showing  tubercles 
on  the  roots. 


LEGUMES  AND  NITROGEN  351 

an  excellent  means  of  combating  these  pests  by  means  of  a 
rotation  of  crops  (Sec.  662).  On  account  of  the  deep  rooting 
habit  of  many  of  the  plants  of  this  family,  they  improve  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil,  penetrating  the  lower  layers 
and  leaving  channels  to  carry  off  surplus  water  and  admit 
air  when  the  roots  decay.  They  add  some  available  plant 
food  to  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  by  bringing  it  up  from 
below.  They  materially  increase  the  fertility  and  improve 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  by  adding  a  large  supply  of 
organic  matter.  Lastly,  they  are  very  important  in  the 
rotation  because  they  have  the  power,  through  the  medium 
of  bacteria  which  live  on  their  roots,  of  taking  nitrogen  from 
the  air  ana  leaving  it  in  the  soil  where  it  can  be  used  by  other 
plants. 

448.  How  the  Legumes  Gather  Nitrogen.  Bacteria  and 
other  forms  of  minute  life  often  live  on  our  useful  plants  as 
parasites  and  do  considerable  injury,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
grain  smuts  and  rusts,  fruit  rots,  and  other  fungous  diseases. 
In  the  case  of  the  nitrifying  bacteria,  however,  the  relation 
toward  the  host  plant  is  a  helpful  rather  than  a  harmful  one. 
If  a  healthy  clover  or  pea  or  bean  plant  is  dug  up  very  care- 
fully and  the  dirt  washed  away  from  the  roots,  many  little 
knots  or  bunches  will  be  found  on  them.  These  knots  or 
tubercles,  which  vary  greatly  in  shape  and  size  according  to 
the  plant  on  which  they  grow,  are  filled  with  thousands  of 
bacteria,  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a  very  powerful 
microscope.1  These  bacteria  take  the  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  change  it  into  a  form  which  can  be  used  by  the 
plants.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  fertilizer  to  pur- 
chase; and  as  the  legumes  add  it  to  the  soil  and  at  the  same 

1A  number  of  illustrations  of  typical  forms  of  tubercles  on  leguminous  and 
other  plants  will  be  found  in  the  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
1910,  pp.  213-218. 


352  FIELD  CROPS 

time  yield  a  valuable  crop  of  hay  or  seed,  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
important  they  are  to  us. 

449.  Conditions  Necessary  for  Nitrifying  Bacteria.    Air 
is  one  of  the  essentials  for  the  growth  of  nitrifying  bacteria. 
Unless  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  to  admit  a  plentiful  supply 
of  air,  these  bacteria  are  unable  to  do  their  work.    Tillage 
is  beneficial  to  them,  as  it  stirs  the  soil,  loosens  it,  and  admits 
air.    Drainage  is  also  helpful,  for  a  soil  which  is  full  of  water 
can  not  admit  the  necessary  air.     Few  leguminous  plants 
grow  well  on  low,  wet,  sour  land,  though  alsike  clover  thrives 
in  such  situations.    Sour  or  acid  soils  are  not  suitable  for 
the  growth  of  these  bacteria;  this  condition  can  be  remedied 
by  the  addition  of  lime.    The  acidity  of  the  soil  can  easily 
be  tested  by  applying  a  little  of  the  moist  soil  to  litmus  paper, 
If  the  soil  turns  blue  litmus  paper  red,  it  is  acid  and  needs 
lime  for  the  best  growth  of  leguminous  crops.     The  applica- 
tion of  a  half-ton  or  a  ton  of  lime  to  the  acre,  or  double  that 
quantity  of  ground  limestone,  will  generally  correct  this 
acidity. 

450.  Inoculation.     Though  the  forms  of  nitrifying  bac- 
teria on  the  roots  of  our  various  legumes  are  very  similar, 
they  can  not  usually  be  transferred  from  one  kind  of  plant 
to  another.    For  this  reason,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  in 
introducing  a  legume  into  a  new  community,  to  supply  it  with 
the  proper  bacteria  by  means  of  inoculation.    As  the  bacteria 
are  very  small  and  increase  rapidly  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, a  small  quantity  of  them  will  inoculate  a  considerable 
area.    One  of  the  best  methods  of  inoculation  is  to  take 
several  hundred  pounds  of  soil  from  a  field  on  which  the  crop 
in  question  has  been  growing  and  scatter  it  on  the  field  tc 
which  it  is  to  be  introduced.    This  is  sometimes  expensive, 
particularly  if  the  soil  has  to  be  shipped  some  distance,  as 
the  transportation  charges  will  then  be  heavy.    Five  to 


INOCULATION  353 

eight  hundred  pounds  of  inoculated  soil  should  be  applied  to 
each  acre  of  the  new  field  if  the  inoculated  soil  can  be  obtained 
near  by.  If  it  must  be  shipped  from  a  distance,  from  200 
to  300  pounds  may  be  made  to  suffice,  thus  reducing  the 
expense  of  transportation.  This  inoculated  soil  may  be 
mixed  with  several  hundred  pounds  of  ordinary  soil  before 
it  is  applied,  since  the  larger  quantity  can  be  spread  more 
easily  and  evenly.  Rather  than  attempt  to  establish  a  large 
area  at  first,  it  is  often  better  to  start  a  small  plat  and  then 
use  soil  from  it  to  inoculate  the  larger  fields. 

Where  the  distance  from  an  old  field  makes  inoculation 
by  soil  transfer  too  expensive,  what  is  known  as  the  "pure 
culture"  method  of  inoculation  may  be  used,  though  it  is 
less  generally  successful  than  the  other  methods.  The 
bacteria  are  grown  artificially  in  culture  media,  and  shipped 
either  in  the  dry  form  similar  to  cakes  of  yeast,  or  in  tubes 
containing  the  liquid  solution.  Before  using  the  powder 
or  liquid  it  is  put  into  a  vessel  containing  water,  a  little 
sugar,  and  other  suitable  material  for  the  growth  of  the 
bacteria.  In  a  few  days  the  water  takes  on  a  milky  hue  from 
the  large  increase  in  numbers  of  the  bacteria,  and  it  is  then 
sprinkled  on  the  seed  or  is  mixed  with  soil  and  spread  on  the 
field.  It  is  much  easier  to  inoculate  the  seed,  which  should 
then  be  sown  within  a  few  days.  Inasmuch  as  the  desired 
bacteria  are  present  in  small  numbers  in  most  soils  and  are 
usually  present  on  the  seed,  complete  inoculation  is  often 
secured  by  gradually  increasing  their  number.  This  is 
best  done  by  mixing  a  small  quantity  of  the  seed  of  the 
legume  desired  along  with  the  grass  seed.  In  a  few  years 
the  bacteria  will  have  increased  sufficiently  to  insure 
the  success  of  a  straight  legume  seeding.  This  explains 

14 


354  FIELD  CROP8 

why  a  good  stand  is  often  obtained  after  repeated  failure. 
Special  inoculation  is  not  often  necessary  except  for  alfalfa, 
and  is  not  always  essential  for  the  success,  of  that  crop.  A 
liberal  application  of  barnyard  manure,  particularly  that 
from  stock  fed  alfalfa  hay,  is  very  helpful  and  often  meets 
all  requirements. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Dig  up  any  of  the  common  legumes  carefully  when  they  are  grow- 
ing rapidly  during  the  late  spring  or  early  summer,  and  examine  the 
nodules  on  their  roots.  These  nodules  are  of  quite  different  shapes  and 
sizes  on  different  plants.  If  they  can  be  examined  under  a  high- 
power  microscope,  they  will  prove  still  more  interesting.  It  may  be 
possible  to  find  fields  of  alfalfa  or  some  other  legume  where  the  nodules 
are  not  present  and  others  where  they  are.  Note  the  difference  in 
growth.  The  instructor  may  provide  an  illustration  of  this  kind  by 
planting  seeds  of  red  clover  or  some  other  legume  common  in  the 
neighborhood  in  ordinary  soil  in  one  pot,  and  seed  which  has  been  care- 
fully washed  to  free  it  from  nitrifying  bacteria  in  soil  that  has  been 
baked  long  enough  to  sterilize  it  in  another  pot.  This  should  be  done 
long  enough  before  this  lesson  is  reached  to  allow  the  plants  several 
weeks'  growth  or,  if  there  is  sufficient  time  between  this  lesson  and  the 
close  of  the  school  year  for  the  plants  to  make  the  necessary  growth, 
the  pupils  may  do  the  planting  and  watch  results. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

278.  Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring. 

315.  Legume  Inoculation. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  63,  Methods  of  Legume  Inoculation. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  291-295. 
Conn's  Agricultural  Bacteriology,  pp.  95-110. 
Hall's  Feeding  of  Crops  and  Stock,  pp.  120-148. 
Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  121-139. 
Shaw's  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  38-26. 
Vivian's  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  pp.  21-30. 
Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures,  pp.  133-149. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  CLOVERS 

451.  Introduction.     The  term  " clover"  is  applied  to  a 
large  number  of  leguminous  forage  crops,  but  only  those 
which  belong  to  the  genus  Trifolium  are  discussed  in  this 
chapter.     The  Trifoliums  are  leafy  herbs  which  grow  from 
a  few  inches  to  three  feet  high,  with  flowers  in  dense  heads 
or  spikes.    The  leaves  consist  of  three  palmately-arranged 
leaflets,  the  number  of  leaflets  being  indicated  by  the  botan- 
ical name  of  the  genus.     This  genus  includes  many  species, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  red  clover,  white  clover, 
alsike  clover,  and  crimson  clover.     Closely  related  plants  to 
which  the  common  name  is  ordinarily  applied,  but  which  are 
not  true  clovers,  such  as  sweet,  bur,  and  Japan  clover,  are 
discussed  elsewhere  (Sec.  522-528). 

RED  CLOVER 

452.  Origin  and  Description.     Red  clover  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  western  Asia,  and  has  been  cultivated  only  about 
three  or  four  hundred  years.     It  was  first  domesticated  in 
western  Europe,  and  was  introduced  into  England  as  a 
cultivated  plant  about  1630.     It  has  been  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  for  many  years,  and  is  now  the  most  important 
leguminous  crop  in  the  Northeastern  and  North  Central 
states. 

The  botanical  name  of  red  clover  is  Trifolium  pratense. 
It  is  distinguished  from  other  species  of  Trifolium  by  its  red 
flowers  and  oval  or  globose  heads.  Mammoth  clover,  some- 
times classified  as  Trifolium  perenne,  is  very  similar  to  it, 


FIELD  CROPS 


Fig.  110.     Heads  of  red  clover  at  different  stages. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  RED  CLOVER  357 

and  is  usually  considered  simply  a  large  variety  of  red  clover. 
It  differs  from  the  ordinary  type  only  in  that  it  makes  a 
ranker  growth  and  matures  somewhat  later.  Red  clover  is 
claimed  by  some  botanists  to  be  a  perennial,  but  ordinarily 
it  is  a  biennial,  since  the  plant  seldom  lives  more  than  two 
years  on  account  of  the  numerous  insects  and  diseases  which 
attack  it. 

Numerous  leafy  stems  are  produced  from  a  crown;  these 
reach  a  height  of  from  1  to  2  feet,  depending  on  the  rain- 
fall and  the  soil.  Usually  the  taller  plants  do  not  stand  erect, 
so  that  the  crop  seldom  appears  to  be  more  than  18  inches 
high.  The  leaflets  usually  have  a  pale  spot  in  the  center. 
The  flowers  are  borne  in  dense  heads,  which  often  contain 
one  hundred  or  more  individual  flowers.  They  are  similar 
in  shape  to  pea  flowers,  but  much  smaller,  and  have  a  long 
tube.  The  length  of  the  flower  is  about  one-half  inch,  and 
the  width  only  about  one-sixteenth  inch.  The  pods  are 
small  and  membraneous,  enclosing  the  kidney-shaped  seeds, 
which  are  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long.  The  seeds 
vary  in  color  from  yellow  to  purple. 

453.  Importance  of  the  Crop.  According  to  the  Census 
report,  tnere  were  21,979,000  acres  devoted  to  the  production 
of  clover  and  mixed  clover  and  timothy  in  the  United  States 
in  1909.  Only  four  of  our  farm  crops  occupied  a  larger  area, 
these  being  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  cotton.  Of  this  area, 
however,  only  2,443,000  acres  were  in  clover  alone,  the 
remainder  being  used  for  the  production  of  mixed  hay. 
With  the  exception  of  small  areas  in  other  states,  clover  pro- 
duction is  confined  to  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central 
states,  the  region  extending  from  Maine  to  Virginia  and 
westward  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Dakotas,  Nebraska, 
and  Kansas.  There  are  also  considerable  areas  devoted  to 
clover  in  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington.  Alfalfa 


358  FIELD  CROPS 

largely  replaces  clover  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  states,  though 
occasionally  large  crops  of  clover  are  grown  in  valleys  where 
alfalfa  does  not  thrive. 

The  principal  states  in  the  production  of  clover  and 
mixed  clover  and  timothy  are  Iowa,  with  three  and  one- 
half  million  acres;  New  York  with  three  million  acres; 
Michigan,  Missouri,  Wisconsin  and  Pennsylvania  with  about 
one  and  three-quarters  of  a  million  acres  each;  and  Illinois 
and  Ohio  with  more  than  a  million  acres  each. 

In  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  River  and  east  of  the 
Missouri,  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  red  clover  is  more  widely 
grown  than  any  other  legume,  and  is  probably  sown  on  a 
larger  acreage  than  all  other  legumes  combined.  White 
clover  is  very  common  in  pastures  over  this  area,  but  is  not 
generally  sown,  for,  like  Kentucky  blue  grass,  it  rapidly 
establishes  itself  on  fields  which  lie  undisturbed  for  a  few 
years.  In  the  South,  where  it  does  not  thrive,  red  clover  is 
replaced  by  numerous  annual  legumes  and  to  some  extent 
by  alfalfa,  while  in  the  irrigated  sections  alfalfa  is  much  more 
commonly  grown  because  of  the  greater  number  of  crops  it 
produces  in  a  season  and  its  longer  period  of  life. 

454.  The  Best  Soils  for  Red  Clover.  Red  clover  makes 
its  best  growth  on  a  deep,  fertile  loam,  though  the  soil  does 
not  need  to  be  rich  in  nitrogen  because  of  the  power  of  this 
plant,  through  the  nitrifying  bacteria,  to  utilize  the  nitrogen 
in  the  air.  In  common  with  other  legumes,  red  clover  will 
store  up  little  nitrogen  on  soils  which  are  already  well  stocked 
with  it,  but  the  bacteria  do  much  more  effective  work  on 
soils  with  a  low  nitrogen  content.  Some  nitrogen  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  give  the  plants  a  start  and  allow  time  for  the 
bacteria  to  establish  themselves,  but  the  supply  need  not  be 
large.  A  deep  soil  is  desirable  for  clover,  since  the  root 


RED  CLOVER  SEED  359 

system  is  extensive;  the  roots  will  go  down  5  or  6  feet  if 
possible. 

As  clover  draws  rather  heavily  on  the  supply  of  potash 
and  phosphorus,  these  elements  should  be  present  in  fairly 
liberal  quantities.  In  general,  any  soil  which  will  grow  good 
corn  will  grow  clover.  Wet,  undrained  land  is  not  adapted 
to  red  clover;  on  such  soils,  alsike  clover  can  be  grown  more 
successfully.  On  poor  soils,  the  application  of  eight  or  ten 
loads  of  barnyard  manure  to  the  acre  will  aid  materially  in 
getting  a  good  stand  and  healthy  growth  of  red  clover. 

455.  Preparation  of  the  Land.    Where  clover  is  sown  in 
the  spring  with  grain  sown  the  previous  fall,  no  special 
preparation  is  possible.    Where  it  is  sown  alone  or  at  the 
same  time  as  the  grain,  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.    The  surface  should  be  fine, 
but  the  seed  bed  should  be  firm  rather  than  loose.     Clover 
grows  best  in  a  soil  that  is  well  settled,  as  fall  plowed  land 
or  disked  corn  or  potato  land.     Newly  plowed  land  should 
be  disked    or  harrowed  with  heavy  harrows  to  pack  the 
lower  layers  before  clover  seed  is  sown  on  it. 

456.  The  Kind  of  Seed  to  Use.    Good  clover  seed  is 
plump  and  of  a  bright  color,  of  uniform  size  and  free  from 
weed   seeds   and   other   foreign   matter.    Bad   weeds   are 
frequently  brought  to  the  farm  through  clover  seed;  a  care- 
ful examination  should  be  made  to  determine  that  no  s.uch 
pests  are  present.    Home-grown  seed  is  much  safer  to  use 
than  that  which  is  purchased,  for  it  can  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  and  there  is  no  danger  of  introducing  new  and  trouble- 
some pests.    New  seed  is  not  so  desirable  as  that  which  is 
a  year  old,  because  new  seed  usually  contains  a  considerable 
percentage  of  "hard  seed"  which  will  not  germinate  for  some 
months  after  planting.     No  seed  should  be  purchased  until 
a  sample  has  been  obtained  and  a  test  of  its  purity  and  germi- 


360 


FIELD  CROPS 


nation  has  been  made.  Too  little  attention  is  commonly 
given  to  the  quality  of  grass  and  clover  seed,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence large  quantities  of  inferior  seed  are  sold  every  year. 

457.  Sowing  the 
Seed.  The  common 
method  of  getting 
a  stand  of  red  clover 
is  to  sow  the  seed  in 
the  spring  on  land 
that  was  planted  to 
winter  wheat  the 
previous  fall  or  to 
sow  it  with  spring 
wheat,  oats,  or 
barley.  When  sown 
with  winter  wheat, 
the  seed  is  usually 
scattered  on  the  sur- 
face before  the  frost 
is  out  of  the  ground 
in  the  spring,  and 
the  subsequent  freez- 
ing and  thawing  and 
the  spring  rains  are 
depended  on  to 
cover  it  sufficiently. 
Some  farmers  delay 
sowing  until  April, 
when  the  rains  alone 
are  expected  to 
cover  the  seed.  A 
more  satisfactory  method  is  to  harrow  the  land  lightly 
both  before  and  after  the  clover  seed  is  sown.  If  the 
harrow  is  fun  in  the  same  direction  as  the  drill  rows, 


13r>  I4S»^* 

\\c\gweea  "mvst\e 


Fig.  111.     Seeds   of   red    clover    and    common 


SOWINO  CLOVER  SEED  •  361 

the  wheat  will  not  be  injured  but  may  even  be  benefited  if 
the  season  is  dry,  and  the  clover  is  much  more  certain  to 
succeed.  If  the  seed  is  to  be  harrowed  in,  it  should  be  sown 
just  as  early  as  the  land  is  in  condition  to  work  in  the  spring. 

When  sown  with  a  spring  grain  crop,  the  seed  is  usually 
distributed  by  hand  or  with  a  broadcast  seeder  after  the 
grain  is  drilled,  though  it  may  be  sown  with  a  seeder  attach- 
ment to  the  drill.  It  is  not  customary  to  cover  the  clover 
to  so  great  a  depth  as  the  grain,  though  on  loamy  and 
sandy  soils  the  seed  is  sometimes  sown  in  the  drills  with  it. 
When  this  practice  is  followed,  the  drill  must  not  be  per- 
mitted to  run  more  than  2  inches  deep,  and  shallower  seeding 
is  desirable.  The  usual  quantity  of  clover  seed  sown  is 
from  6  to  10  pounds  to  the  acre.  When  sown  with  timothy, 
about  8  to  10  pounds  of  the  seed  of  that  grass  are  sown  with 
6  pounds  of  clover. 

Winter  wheat  is  one  of  the  best  nurse  crops  for  clover, 
as  it  makes  comparatively  little  shade,  is  removed  from  the 
land  early,  and  does  not  draw  heavily  on  the  moisture 
supply.  Winter  rye  is  also  good,  and  winter  barley  is  hardy 
enough  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  along  the  southern  edge 
of  the  clover  belt.  Next  to  the  winter  grains,  spring  wheat 
and  spring  barley  possess  desirable  characteristics  as  nurse 
crops.  Oats  draw  heavily  on  the  soil  moisture  and  make  a 
dense  shade,  hence  they  are  less  desirable  for  this  purpose, 
though  they  are  very  commonly  used.  In  some  sections 
the  practice  of  sowing  clover  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  is 
increasing  (Fig.  113).  Where  there  is  plenty  of  moisture, 
this  usually  gives  a  good  stand,  but  in  dry  seasons  it  is  quite 
likely  to  fail.  This  method  of  seeding  is  somewhat  objection- 
able for  the  establishment  of  meadows,  as  the  corn  stalks  or 
stubble  will  cause  some  trouble  the  first  season  in  making 


362 


FIELD  CROPS 


hay.     Millet,  buckwheat,  and  similar  crops  which  make  a 
rank  growth  should  never  be  used  as  nurse  crops. 

458.  Sowing  Without  a  Nurse  Crop.  In  sections  where 
the  winters  are  not  so  severe  as  to  make  winter-killing  prob- 
ab  e,  the  seeding  of  clover  in  August  or  early  September 
without  a  nurse  crop  is  often  more  successful  than  sowing  with 
a  grain  crop.  The  use  of  a  nurse  crop  allows  the  production 
of  a  crop  while  the  stand  of  clover  is  being  established,  and 


Fig.  112.     A  good  stand  of  young  clover  in  grain  stubble. 

the  stubble  is  of  some  protection  to  the  young  plants,  par- 
ticularly during  the  winter.  The  nurse  crop,  however, 
often  draws  so  heavily  on  the  supply  of  soil  moisture  and 
plant  food  that  the  clover  is  injured,  while  the  sudden 
exposure  of  the  tender  plants  to  the  full  effects  of  the  sun  and 
wind  in  midsummer  when  the  grain  is  removed  is  often 
disastrous.  The  loss  of  a  crop  may  be  avoided  by  pre- 
paring the  land  after  the  grain  is  harvested  and  sowing  the 
clover  not  later  than  August  15.  Sowing  after  that  date 


TREATMENT  OF  CLOVER  MEADOWS  363 

is  likely  to  result  in  loss  from  winter-killing.  If  sown  after 
grain  or  early  potatoes,  the  land  need  not  be  plowed,  but  the 
surface  should  be  disked  and  harrowed  so  as  to  make  it  fine 
and  mellow.  If  clover  is  sown  alone  in  the  spring,  under 
favorable  conditions  a  fair  cutting  of  hay  may  be  obtained 
that  season;  if  sown  in  the  late  summer  after  some  other  crop 
is  removed,  a  good  crop  should  be  produced  the  following 
year. 

459.  Inoculation.     In  sections  where  red  clover  is  com- 
monly grown,  inoculation  is  not  usually  necessary,  for  the 
soil  is  well  stocked  with  the  proper  bacteria.     In  newly 
settled  regions  where  it  is  desired  to  introduce  clover,  inocu- 
lation by  means  of  soil  from  an  old  clover  field  or  of  pure 
cultures  of  the  proper  bacteria  may  sometimes  be  necessary 
for  success. 

460.  Treatment  of  the  Crop.    Clover  is  seldom  given 
any  treatment  from  the  time  the  seed  is  sown  till  it  is  cut  for 
hay  the  following  year.     It  is  sometimes  possible  to  pasture 
spring  seeding  the  following  fall,  but  close  pasturing  will 
reduce  the  crop  the  succeeding  year.     Cattle  injure  the 
young  plants  much  less  than  sheep  or  hogs,  because  they  do 
not  graze  so  closely.     Clipping  back  the  young  clover  and 
the  weeds  a  few  weeks  after  the  nurse  crop  is  harvested  is 
often  the  most  beneficial  treatment  which  can  be  given. 
This  treatment  is  not  advisable  in  the  North,  however,  un- 
less there  is  time  before  frost  for  the  plants  to   make  suffi- 
cient growth  to  protect  the  roots  from  winter  injury.     A 
top  dressing  of  manure  will  greatly  increase  the  yield,  though 
if  the  supply  of  manure  is  limited,  it  may  be  applied  with 
greater  profit  just  before  breaking  up  the  clover  sod  for  corn. 

The  usual  practice  the  second  season  is  to  cut  the  first 
crop  for  hay  as  soon  as  it  comes  into  blossom,  cutting  the 
second  crop  either  for  seed  or  hay.  Conditions  are  usually 


364  FIELD  CROPS 

better  for  seed  production  at  the  time  the  second  crop 
matures.  The  second  growth  may  also  be  pastured,  or  if 
the  land  needs  vegetable  matter  it  may  be  plowed  under  to 
benefit  the  crop  which  follows.  Better  returns  will  be 
obtained,  however,  if  this  second  crop  is  pastured  or  is  cut 
and  fed  on  the  farm  and  the  manure  returned  to  the  land. 
Clover  alone  ordinarily  does  not  maintain  a  good  stand  after 
the  second  year  unless  the  second  crop  is  allowed  to  produce 
seed  and  this  seed  is  harrowed  in.  When  mixed  with 
timothy,  good  meadows  may  be  maintained  for  three  or  four 
years,  particularly  if  a  top  dressing  of  manure  is  given,  but 
the  hay  crop  during  the  later  years  will  contain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  timothy. 

461.  Making  Clover  Hay.  Directions  have  already  been 
given  for  hay  making  (Sec.  364-366).  Somewhat  more  than 
ordinary  care  is  needed  to  make  good  hay  from  clover  or  the 
other  leguminous  crops,  for  they  cure  less  readily  than  the 
grasses.  The  best  clover  hay  is  usually  obtained  by  cutting 
when  a  majority  of  the  blossoms  are  a  little  past  full  bloom. 
Since  the  leaves  contain  a  large  part  of  the  food  material  in 
the  most  palatable  form,  they  are  a  very  valuable  part  of  the 
hay.  They  are  best  retained  by  curing  largely  in  the  shade. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  hay  should  be  cut  in  the  morning  as 
soon  as  the  dew  is  off,  kept  loose  with  the  tedder,  and  raked 
and  put  into  small  cocks  before  the  leaves  are  dry  enough  to 
shatter.  In  this  way  most  of  the  curing  is  done  in  the  cock 
where  the  leaves  are  protected  from  the  sun;  two  or  three 
days  are  necessary  in  good  weather  for  the  clover  to  cure. 
It  is  usually  desirable  to  open  the  cocks  to  the  sun  and  air 
for  a  few  hours  before  storing.  The  use  of  cock  covers  to 
protect  the  hay  from  dew  and  rain  is  generally  necessary 
to  obtain  the  best  quality  of  hay.  Clover  should  not  be 


CLOVER  IN  CORN 


365 


Fig.  113.  A  tine  stand  of  young  clover  in  corn.  The  practice  of  seeding 
clover  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  is  growing  to  be  quite  common  in 
some  sections. 


366  FIELD  CROPS 

allowed  to  become  too  dry  before  it  is  put  into  the  mow  or 
stack,  or  the  leaves  will  crumble  and  the  hay  will  be  dusty. 

If  the  hay  is  stacked,  rather  more  than  ordinary  care  is 
necessary  in  building  the  stack,  for  clover  hay  does  not  shed 
water  as  readily  as  hay  made  from  the  grasses.  Much 
valuable  hay  may  be  saved  if  a  foundation  of  rails  or  of 
poor  hay  is  put  down  before  the  stack  of  clover  hay  is 
started,  and  if  the  stack  is  covered  with  grass  hay,  straw, 
or  boards.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  this  covering 
extend  as  far  down  the  sides  of  the  stack  as  possible  to  pre- 
vent loss  from  weathering. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  hay  into  the  mow  or 
stack  when  it  is  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  as  spontaneous  com- 
bustion may  result  from  the  heating  which  will  take  place. 
Even  though  the  hay  does  not  become  hot  enough  to  burn,  it 
is  very  likely  to  be  seriously  damaged. 

462.  Pasturing  Red  Clover.    Red  clover  is  an  excellent 
pasture  plant  for  stock  of  all  kinds,  though  it  is  not  so  good 
for  permanent  pasture  as  white  clover.     Close  pasturing 
during  the  first  year  of  its  growth  or  early  in  the  spring  is 
likely  to  greatly  reduce  the  quantity  of  hay  or  pasture  which 
will  be  supplied  during  the  season.     Sheep  or  cattle  are  some- 
times likely  to  bloat  when  first  turned  on  clover  pasture, 
particularly  if  they  are  hungry  and  the  clover  is  damp.     It 
is  advisable  to  have  the  stock  well  filled  with  other  feed 
when  turned  in  and  to  accustom  them  to  the  clover  gradu- 
ally. 

463.  Value  of  Clover  Hay  and  Pasture.     As  clover  is  rich 
in  protein,    it  makes  an  excellent  part  of  the  ration  for 
all   kinds  of  stock,   particularly  for  young  and  growing 
animals,  for  dairy  cows,  and  for  poultry.     Where  clover  can 
be  grown  successfully,  protein  can  be  supplied  more  cheaply 
in  this  form  than  in  bran,  oilmeal,  or  other  expensive  pur- 


HARVESTING  CLOVER  SEED  367 

chased  feeds.  Red  clover  contains  considerably  less  protein 
than  alfalfa,  but  about  the  same  quantity  of  the  other 
nutrients  (Sec.  344). 

464.  Harvesting  the  Seed  Crop.  The  production  of  seed 
is  usually  possible  wherever  clover  can  be  grown  successfully. 
Except  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  clover  region,  it  is 
customary  to  utilize  the  second  growth  for  seed  production, 
because  it  is  more  likely  to  produce  a  profitable  crop.  In 
order  to  have  the  seed  mature  in  good  weather  and  escape 
insect  pests  which  may  be  serious  a  little  later,  the  first  crop 
is  cut  a  few  days  earlier,  when  the  second  crop  is  to  be  cut 
for  seed,  than  would  otherwise  be  done.  In  the  North, 
where  the  growing  season  is  short,  there  is  not  time  to  grow 
a  crop  of  hay  and  one  of  seed;  so  the  early  growth  is  pastured 
or  clipped  back  till  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  the  plants 
are  then  allowed  to  bloom  and  produce  seed.  This  practice 
is  also  followed  to  some  extent  where  there  is  ample  time  for 
two  crops  to  mature,  as  the  attacks  of  the  clover  midge  and 
other  insects  are  averted  and  much  larger  yields  of  seed  are 
obtained. 

Clover  seed  should  be  cut  when  the  heads  have  turned 
brown,  and  the  seed  is  in  the  hard  dough  stage.  If  cut 
earlier,  shriveled  seed  will  result;  while  if  cutting  is  delayed, 
many  of  the  heads  will  break  off  in'  handling.  Unless  an 
average  of  twenty-five  or  more  seeds  can  be  rubbed  out  of 
the  mature  heads,  it  will  not  usually  pay  to  cut  the  crop  for 
seed;  it  should  be  cut  for  hay  instead.  The  seed  crop  should 
be  handled  as  little  as  possible  to  prevent  loss  of  the  heads. 
The  usual  method  is  to  cut  with  a  self-rake  reaper  or  with 
a  mower  with  buncher  attached.  Either  of  these  imple- 
ments places  the  clover  behind  the  machine  where  it  will  not 
be  trampled  by  the  horses  on  the  next  round.  It  is  then  put 
into  cocks  for  curing,  and  within  a  week  or  two,  if  the  weather 


368  FIELD  CROPS 

is  favorable,  it  is  ready  to  be  hulled.  Clover  seed  is  seldom 
stacked,  for  too  much  of  the  seed  would  be  lost  in  the  extra 
handling.  The  clover  miller  is  quite  similar  to  the  thrash- 
ing machine,  but  has  an  extra  set  of  rasps  for  rubbing  the 
seed  from  the  hulls.  The  usual  yield  is  but  1  or  2  bushels 
to  the  acre,  though  5  bushels  are  sometimes  obtained.  The 
usual  price  for  clover  seed  in  recent  years  has  been  from  $5 
to  $10  a  bushel  of  60  pounds,  though  higher  prices  are  some- 
times obtained  for  seed  of  extra  quality. 

465.  Place  in  the  Rotation.    Clover  occupies  a  prominent 
place  in  the  rotation  throughout  the  region  where  it  is  grown. 
It.  usually  follows  a  small  grain  crop  and  precedes  corn  or 
potatoes.    As  has  previously  been  stated,  it  is  generally 
sown  with  winter  wheat  or  with  some  one  of  the  spring  grains. 
Where  corn  is  an  important  crop,  the  common  rotation  is 
wheat,  clover,  corn   or  oats,  clover,  corn,  though  two  crops 
of  corn  may  be  grown  in  succession,  making  a  four-year 
rotation.    Where  potatoes  are  largely  grown,  a  common 
rotation  is  potatoes,  oats,  clover.    Sometimes  the  clover  is 
left  for  two  years,  or  two  crops  of  potatoes  or  one  of  potatoes 
and  one  of  corn  are  grown,  making  this  a  four-year  instead 
of  a  three-year  rotation.     In  any  case,  clover  is  depended  on 
to  add  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen  to  the  soil.    Where  it 
is  grown  as  often  as  once  in  three  years,  this  element  need 
not  generally  be  purchased,  but  potash  and  phosphorus  will 
have  to  be  added  either  in  commercial  fertilizers  or  barn- 
yard manure,  unless  the  soil  is  very  rich  in  these  constitu- 
ents.   Best  results  are  usually  obtained  when  the  manure  is 
applied  to  the  clover  sod  before  breaking  it  up  for  corn. 

466.  Enemies  of  Red  Clover.    The  most  common  fun- 
gous diseases  which  attack  the  clover  plant  are  leaf  spot, 
rust,  stem  rot,  and  root  rot.    These  diseases  seldom  do 
serious  injury  to  a  vigorous  stand,  but  on  poor  land  or  else- 


CLOVER  DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  369 

where  under  conditions  where  the  plant  does  not  thrive,  they 
may  cause  serious  injury.  The  best  remedies  are  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  soil  by  adding  fertility  or  by  draining, 
and  to  practice  a  proper  rotation  of  crops. 

Insects  usually  do  far  more  damage  to  clover  than 
diseases.  Among  the  more  common  enemies  are  the  clover 
root-borer,  the  clover-leaf  weevil,  and  the  clover-flower 
midge.  The  root-borer  usually  does  not  seriously  affect 
the  stand  until  the  latter  part  of  the  second  year,  when  the 
roots  are  large  enough  to  harbor  the  larvae  or  grubs.  They 
then  enter  the  roots  and  bore  through  the  upper  portions, 
greatly  weakening  the  plants.  The  best  remedy  is  to  plow 
the  land  soon  after  the  crop  of  hay  is  removed  the  second 
year,  thus  destroying  the  food  of  the  grubs.  The  clover- 
leaf  weevil  sometimes  destroys  the  leaves  of  the  plant  in  the 
early  spring;  but  as  new  growth  is  soon  produced,  it  does 
little  serious  damage.  The  clover-flower  midge  does  no 
harm  to  the  hay  crop,  but  as  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  heads  and 
the  grubs  develop  there  they  feed  on  the  young  seed  and 
prevent  the  production  of  a  seed  crop.  Their  ravages  are 
checked  if  the  first  crop  of  hay  is  cut  quite  early,  for  the 
larvae  will  then  have  no  opportunity  to  develop,  and  the 
second  crop  will  be  beyond  the  possibility  of  damage  by  the 
time  the  second  brood  appears. 

A  parasitic  pest  known  as  dodder  is  sometimes  quite 
troublesome  in  clover  fields.  This  plant  begins  growth 
about  the  same  time  as  the  young  clover  plants,  and  the  stem 
soon  attaches  itself  to  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  clover, 
coiling  tightly  around  them.  The  ground  stem  of  the  dodder 
then  dies  away  and  the  plant  lives  on  the  clover.  The  best 
preventive  measure  is  to  examine  the  clover  seed  carefully 
to  make  certain  that  it  is  free  from  the  seeds  of  dodder. 


370 


FIELD  CROPS 


If  it  gets  into  the  field,  the  entire  growth  of  clover  which 
contains  dodder  should  be  cut  away  close  to  the  ground  and 
burned.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  no  pieces  of  dodder 

are  left  or  dropped,  as 
they  will  at  once  start 
into  new  growth. 

WHITE  CLOVER 

467.  White  Clover  is 
one  of  our  commonest 
plants,  appearing  in  pas- 
tures, lawns,  roadsides, 
and  other  places  which 
are  left  unbroken  for 
two  or  three  years.  It 
is  a  shallow-rooted  plant 
with  a  creeping  habit 
of  growth.  It  does  not 
grow  high  enough  for 
hay  production,  but  with 
Kentucky  blue  grass 
forms  the  best  pasture 
combination  for  a  large 
part  of  the  country. 
The  botanical  name, 
Trifolium  repens,  indi- 
cates its  trailing  habit. 
The  plant  is  perennial, 
with  small,  long-stalked  leaves  and  small  heads  of  white 
or  pinkish  flowers  on  long  stems.  The  seeds  are  only 
about  half  as  long  as  those  of  red  clover,  and  are  orange 
or  yellow  in  color.  The  plant  grows  and  blooms  practically 
throughout  the  season. 


Fig.  114.  Alsike  (1)  and  white  clover  (k). 
Note  the  differences  in  habit  of  growth  and 
the  manner  in  which  roots  are  produced  all 
along  the  stem  of  white  clover.  It  is  this 
character  which  makes  it  so  persistent  in 
pastures. 


WHITE  AND  AL8IKE  CLOVERS  371 

White  clover  is  occasionally  sown  in  pasture  mixtures  at 
the  rate  of  from  2  to  5  pounds  to  the  acre,  though  the  natural 
growth  of  this  plant  is  generally  depended  on  to  produce  a 
good  stand  in  pastures.  Its  prostrate  or  trailing  habit 
materially  helps  it  in  its  spread,  as  the  stems  root  at  the 
joints  and  produce  new  plants.  It  is  for  this  reason  and  on 
account  of  the  small  size  of  the  seeds  that  white  clover 
spreads  so  rapidly,  and  that  such  a  small  quantity  of  seed 
is  needed  to  obtain  a  good  stand.  White  clover  is  an 
important  honey  plant,  and  is  also  generally  used  in  lawn 
mixtures.  With  blue  grass  it  makes  a  close,  even  turf  which 
stands  frequent  cutting.  The  seed  is  produced  mostly  in 
eastern  Wisconsin,  where  this  plant  is  grown  in  a  two-year 
rotation  with  barley.  The  price  is  usually  about  the  same 
as  that  of  red  clover  seed. 

ALSIKE  CLOVER 

468.  Alsike  Clover  is  intermediate  in  appearance  between 
red  and  white  clover,  and  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  a  hybrid 
between  the  two  species.  Its  botanical  name,  Trifolium 
hybridum,  indicates  such  an  origin,  but  botanists  now 
generally  agree  that  it  is  a  distinct  species.  The  plant 
makes  a  slender,  upright  growth,  which  needs  support  to 
prevent  lodging,  so  that  it  does  best  in  a  mixture  with  some 
of  the  grasses,  as  timothy  or  brome  grass.  As  the  stems  are 
smooth,  it  makes  a  cleaner  hay  than  red  clover.  The  leaves 
have  long  stalks  like  white  clover;  the  leaflets  are  somewhat 
larger  than  those  of  white  clover,  as  are  also  the  heads  of 
pink  flowers  and  the  yellow  or  green  seeds.  The  name  alsike 
is  from  the  town  of  Syke  or  Alsyke  in  Sweden,  where  the 
plant  is  said  to  have  been  first  cultivated.  Another  common 
name,  Swedish  clover,  is  from  a  similar  source. 

Alsike  clover  is  particularly  adapted  to  wet  lands,  where  it 


372  FIELD  CROPS 

is  often  substituted  for  red  clover.  It  makes  hay  of  excel- 
lent quality,  but  the  yield  is  usually  less  than  that  of  red 
clover,  and  only  one  cutting  can  be  made  during  the  season. 
It  is  less  adapted  to  use  in  pastures  than  white  clover.  When 
sown  in  mixtures  with  grasses,  about  4  to  6  pounds  of  seed 
are  used.  The  hay  is  somewhat  easier  to  cure  than  red 
clover  hay,  because  the  stems  are  smaller.  The  plant  lives 
from  three  to  five  years,  and  is  therefore 
more  permanent  than  red  clover. 

CRIMSON    CLOVER 

469.    Crimson  Clover,  Trifolium  incar- 
natum,  is  an  annual  clover  which  is  sown 
along  the   southern  Atlantic   coast  as  a 
winter  cover  and  green  manure  crop,  and 
is  also  used  to  some  extent  for  the  pro- 
duction of  hay.    This  plant   was  intro- 
duced from  Europe  at  a   comparatively 
recent  date  and  is  not  extensively  grown. 
Fig.  us."  Crimson      From  Delaware  southward,  it  makes  an 
clover.  excellent  cover  crop  in  orchards  and  else- 

where. It  should  be  seeded  in  July  or  early  in  August 
and  plowed  under  or  cut  for  hay  when  it  comes  into  bloom 
the  following  spring.  The  plants,  which  reach  a  height  of 
3  feet  on  good  soil,  are  erect  in  their  growth.  The  heads 
are  terminal,  and  are  much  longer  than  those  of  the  other 
clovers,  forming  a  dense  spike.  The  bright  crimson  flowers 
are  very  striking  in  appearance.  The  reddish  yellow  or 
straw  yellow  seeds  are  larger  than  those  of  red  clover. 
Twelve  to  twenty  pounds  are  sown  to  the  acre;  a  mixture 
with  other  seed  is  seldom  used. 

Crimson  clover  may  be  sown  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
in  August  and  plowed  under  in  May  in  plenty  of  time  to 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  373 

plant  a  crop  of  cotton  or  corn.  It  adds  a  large  quantity  of 
vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  and  also  materially  increases 
the  supply  of  nitrogen.  It  is  seldom  used  as  a  pasture  crop, 
but  is  occasionally  cut  for  hay.  The  hairy  stems  and  leaves 
are  somewhat  objectionable,  and  when  the  hay  forms  a  large 
part  or  all  of  the  ration  of  an  animal,  "hair  balls"  are  some- 
times formed  in  the  stomach,  giving  considerable  trouble. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Fanners'  Bulletins: 

260.  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities. 

306.  Dodder  in  Relation  to  Farm  Seeds. 

323.  Clover  Farming  on  the  Jack  Pine  Lands  of  the  North. 

353.  Commercial  Clover  Seed,  pp.  5-7. 

382.  The  Adulteration  of  Forage-Plant  Seeds. 

451.  Clover  Growing,  pp.  7-10. 

455.  Red  Clover. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  232-239. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  102-103;  120-121;  162-163;  197-202;  262-263. 
Hunts'  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  140-173. 
Shaw's  Clovers  and  How  To  Grow  Them,  pp.  1-113;  194-278. 
Voorhees'  Forage  Crops,  pp.  231-252. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
ALFALFA 

470.  Origin  and  History.    Alfalfa  has  been  cultivated 
for  forage  longer  than  any  other  leguminous  plant.    Though 
it  is  probable  that  both  the  cowpea  and  the  soy  bean  were 
grown  at  an  earlier  date  for  their  seeds,  their  first  use  as 
forage  is  much  more  recent  than  that  of  alfalfa.    Alfalfa 
is  a  native  of  Persia  and  other  portions  of  southwestern 
Asia,  whence  it  was  taken  to  Greece  more  than  two  thousand 
years  ago.     It  was  cultivated  by  the  Romans;  for  many 
centuries  it  has  been  an  important  forage  crop  in  southern 
Europe.    The  Spanish  introduced  it  at  a  very  early  date  into 
South  America,   Mexico,  and  what  is  now  southwestern 
United  States.     It  was  very  successful  in  California  and 
elsewhere,  but  the  earlier  attempts  to  grow  it  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  were  failures.     It  is  now  known  that  these 
failures  were  due  quite  largely  to  the  absence  of  the  proper 
bacteria,  but  it  was  long  thought  that  other  soil  conditions 
were  not  suitable.     Finally   it  was  successfully  grown  in 
Kansas,  and  since  the  cause  of  the  earlier  failures  has  been 
shown,  it  is  now  being  grown  in  every  state  of  the  Union. 

471.  Description.    Alfalfa  differs  from  the  clovers,  to 
which  it  is  closely  related,  in  that  the  flowers  are  in  short 
spikes  rather  than  in  dense  heads;  the  pods  are  coiled  instead 
of  straight;  and  the  third  leaflet,  instead  of  growing  from  the 
same  point  as  the  other  two,  is  on  a  short  stalk  of  its  own, 
making  the  leaf  pinnate  instead  of  palmate.    The  genus  to 
which  alfalfa  belongs,  Medicago,  differs  from  another  closely 
related  one,  Melilotus,  the  sweet  clovers,  in  that  the  sweet 


THE  ALFALFA  PLANT 


375 


clover  flowers  are  in  long  racemes  and  the  pods  are  straight. 
The  sweet  clover  leaflets  are  arranged  like  those  of  alfalfa, 
and  the  plants  are  quite  similar  till  they  begin  to  bloom. 
Alfalfa,  Medicago  saliva,  differs  from  the  other  plants 
of  the  genus  which  are  found  in  America  in  that  it  is  peren- 
nial instead  of  an- 
nual, and  that  the 
flowers  are  usually 
purple,  while  those 
of  the  others,  the 
medics  or  bur 
clovers,  are  yellow. 
The  numerous 
stems  which  are 
produced  arise 
from  a  crown;  they 
grow  from  15  to  24 
inches  long,  and 
are  erect  or  spread- 
ing according  to 
their  length  and 
the  thickness  of 
the  stand.  The 
long  tap-root  pene- 
trates to  a  great 
depth,  with  many 
small  branches  or 
feeding  roots.  The 
leaflets  vary  greatly  in  size,  but  usually  range  from  y%  to  1 
inch  in  length  and  somewhat  less  in  width.  The  flowers, 
which  are  slightly  larger  than  the  individual  flowers  of  red 
clover,  are  in  short  racemes.  They  are  usually  violet- 
purple  in  color,  though  sometimes  much  lighter,  inclining 


Fig.  116.  Alfalfa  plant  showing  the  manner  in 
which  a  large  number  of  stems  are  produced  from 
one  root  or  crown. 


376  FIELD  CROPS 

to  a  pale  whitish  or  yellowish  purple.  The  pods  are  in  two 
or  three  coils,  brown  when  ripe,  and  contain  several  seeds. 
The  seeds  are  somewhat  kidney  shaped,  though  the  coils  of 
the  pod  may  compress  them  into  other  forms.  They  are 
about  the  same  size  as  red  clover  seeds,  but  are  much  less 
variable  in  color,  being  quite  uniformly  of  a  bright  olive 
green  shade. 

472.  Varieties.    The  ordinary  grower  gives  little  atten- 
tion to  varieties  of  alfalfa,  and  few  really  distinct  ones  have 
been  developed.     One  which  is  prominent  in  Minnesota, 
North  Dakota,  and  other  Northern  states  on  account  of  its 
hardiness  is  the  Grimm  alfalfa,  introduced  into  Carver 
County,  Minnesota,  by  Wendelin  Grimm,  an  early  German 
settler.     Other  strains  of  alfalfa  have  recently  been  intro- 
duced which  are  quite  similar  to  the  Grimm  in  many  respects. 
The  most  noticeable  difference  in  Grimm  alfalfa  from  the 
ordinary  type,  in  addition  to  its  extra  hardiness,  is  the  wide 
variation  in  the  color  of  the  flowers,  ranging  from  white 
through  yellow  and  greenish  to  the  purple  of  the  ordinary 
strain.     Other  varieties  are  named  largely  from  the  locali- 
ties from  which  they  have  been  imported,  including  the 
Turkestan,   Peruvian,   and  Arabian.    Large  quantities  of 
seed  of  ordinary  alfalfa  have  been  sold  as  Turkestan,  which 
was  claimed  to  be  remarkably  resistant  to  drouth  and  cold. 
The  true  Turkestan  alfalfa  does  possess  these  qualities  to 
some  extent,  but  it  is  better  than  the  common  varieties  only 
in  limited  sections  in  the  semiarid  West.    Both  Peruvian 
and  Arabian  alfalfa  are  marked  by  a  long  growing  season 
and  a  lack  of  hardiness;  they  are  a  success  only  in  the  South- 
west, as  in  Arizona  and  southern  California. 

473.  Production  in  the  United  States.    The   area  in 
alfalfa,  as  reported  by  the  Census  of  1910,  was  4,702,000 
acres,    the   largest   acreages   being   in    Kansas,    Colorado, 


ALFALFA  YIELDS  377 

California,  Utah,  and  Idaho,  though  the  crop  is  widely 
grown  in  all  the  states  from  Nebraska  and  Kansas  west- 
ward, including  Montana,  Oklahoma,  and  portions  of 
Texas.  In  the  irrigated  portions  of  the  Far  Western  states, 
alfalfa  is  the  principal  forage  crop.  Outside  of  this  district, 
it  is  more  important  in  Kansas  than  elsewhere,  nearly  one 
million  acres  now  being  grown  in  that  state,  the  alfalfa 
acreage  exceeding  the  combined  area  in  clover  and  all  the 
tame  grasses.  Its  cultivation  has  spread  in  recent  years  to 
the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  though  there  is 
no  large  acreage  in  any  state,  the  importance  of  the  crop  is 
rapidly  increasing. 

The  reasons  for  the  popularity  of  alfalfa  where  it  can 
be  grown  are  not  hard  to  find.  Once  established,  it  lasts 
for  years  and  yields  from  three  to  five  cuttings  of  very  valu- 
able hay  during  the  season,  the  total  production  being  con- 
siderably greater  than  from  red  clover.  It  thrives  in  the 
South  where  red  clover  will  not  grow;  when  once  established 
it  is  more  drouth  resistant.  The  feeding  value  of  the  hay  is 
greater  than  that  of  red  clover  hay.  When  a  stand  of  alfalfa 
is  broken  up,  corn  or  other  crops  yield  heavily,  for  the 
alfalfa  adds  a  large  supply  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  and  the 
long  roots  improve  its  physical  condition  by  making  the 
lower  layers  more  porous. 

474.  The  yield  of  alfalfa  varies  greatly  in  different  por- 
tions of  the  country,  depending  on  the  rainfall,  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  and  the  length  of  the  growing  season.  In  the 
South  and  Southwest,  where  four  or  five  or  more  cuttings 
may  be  made  in  a  season  and  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
water  either  from  rainfall  or  irrigation,  the  yield  may  vary 
from  1/2  ton  to  2  or  3  tons  to  the  acre  at  a  cutting,  and  the 
total  yield  for  the  season  may  reach  6  or  8  tons.  Where  con- 
ditions are  less  favorable,  the  annual  yield  usually  varies 


378  FIELD  CROPS 

from  1  to  3  or  4  tons  to  the  acre.  The  average  yield  for  the 
entire  country  in  1909,  as  reported  by  the  Census  Bureau, 
was  2.52  tons  to  the  acre.  The  usual  growing  season  for  a 
crop  of  hay  is  from  thirty  to'  forty  days,  though  in  warm 
weather,  with  plenty  of  rain,  the  field  may  be  ready  for  cut- 
ting in  twenty-five  days  from  the  removal  of  the  previous 
crop. 

475.  Soils  Adapted  to  Alfalfa.  The  soils  best  adapted 
to  alfalfa  are  the  deep  loams,  in  which  the  roots  can  penetrate 
to  a  considerable  depth.  A  stiff  clay  subsoil  which  is  too 
hard  for  the  roots  to  penetrate  is  not  suitable,  while  sandy 


MS  itfAji;' 


Fig.  117.    At  the  left,  alfalfa  seed  containing  trash  and  other  impurities; 
at  the  right,  an  excellent  sample  of  clean  seed. 

land  does  not  produce  growth  vigorous  enough  to  keep  down 
weeds.  On  rich  loams  a  stand  of  alfalfa,  when  well  estab- 
lished, will  usually  crowd  out  weeds  of  all  kinds.  Good 
drainage  is  essential,  for  the  plants  will  not  grow  with  "wet 
feet."  Plenty  of  water  is  a  necessity  for  the  best  growth  of 
the  crop,  but  the  plant  must  be  allowed  to  go  after  it  and 
bring  it  up  from  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil. 

While  alfalfa  will  store  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  it  will 
not  thrive  on  poor  land.  Some  nitrogen  must  be  supplied 
till  the  plants  get  a  start  and  the  bacteria  begin  their  work. 


PREPARING  LAND  FOR  ALFALFA         379 

Good  supplies  of  phosphorus  and  potash  are  necessary. 
Barnyard  manure  is  the  best  fertilizer  for  alfalfa.  If  a 
liberal  application  of  manure  is  plowed  under  before  the 
alfalfa  seed  is  sown,  there  will  usually  be  no  trouble  in  getting 
a  stand.  Lime  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa,  par- 
ticularly to  the  bacteria  which  live  on  its  roots.  Unless  the 
soil  is  known  to  contain  a  liberal  supply  of  lime,  the  addition 
of  a  ton  to  the  acre  on  at  least  a  small  portion  of  the  field  as 
an  experiment  is  advisable.  Alfalfa  will  not  thrive  on  sour 
soil;  lime  is  the  proper  corrective. 

476.  Preparation  of  the  Land.  One  of  the  greatest 
essentials  for  success  in  the  production  of  alfalfa  is  a  properly 
prepared  seed  bed.  Few  crops  depend  so  much  on  this. 
Since  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  the  land  free  from  weeds 
before  alfalfa  is  sown,  it  is  usually  well  to  have  some  culti- 
vated crop  precede  it.  In  the  South,  this  may  be  cowpeas, 
cotton,  or  corn,  though  cotton  and  corn  are  not  often  removed 
early  enough  to  allow  the  seeding  of  alfalfa  the  same  season. 
Early  potatoes  leave  the  land  in  excellent  condition  for 
alfalfa.  A  small  grain  crop,  while  not  as  desirable  as  a  culti- 
vated crop,  may  precede  alfalfa,  as  it  can  be  removed  in  time 
to  allow  the  preparation  of  the  land  for  late  summer  seeding. 

While  plowing  is  desirable,  it  is  not  always  necessary. 
If  the  land  was  plowed  for  the  preceding  crop  and  has  been 
kept  free  from  trash,  disking  often  gives  as  good  results  as 
plowing.  When  the  land  is  plowed,  the  work  should  be 
done  several  weeks  before  seeding  to  give  the  soil  time  to 
settle  and  become  firm.  Alfalfa  grows  best  in  a  soil  that  is 
fine  and  mellow  on  the  surface,  but  is  fairly  compact  beneath 
so  that  it  will  hold  moisture  well.  Where  alfalfa  is  sown 
on  corn  land  in  the  spring,  thorough  disking  and  harrowing 
will  put  it  in  good  shape.  The  same  thing  is  true  where 
alfalfa  follows  a  small  grain  crop,  particularly  if  the  land  was 


380 


FIELD  CROPS 


plowed  for  the  small  grain.  On  sandy  land,  it  is  well  to  sow 
the  seed  in  grain  stubble  or  to  scatter  a  light  top  dressing  of 
straw  over  the  field  to  protect  the  young  plants  from  injury 

by  the  blowing  of 
the  soil  particles. 

477.  Sowing  the 
Seed.    The    usual 


%  w  ••••*%• 


A 


* 


4 


•  •  •  *  * 


Fig.  118.  Seeds  of  alfalfa  and  common  impuri- 
ties. Seeds  at  right  are  natural  size.  A,  alfalfa; 
B,  yellow  trefoil;  C,  sweet  clover;  D,  buckhorn; 
E,  wild  carrot;  F,  wild  chicory;  G,  curled  dock; 
H,  large-seeded  dodder;  I,  small-seeded  dodder. 
(From  Farmers'  Bulletin  339.) 


method  is  to  sow 
from  12  to  20 
pounds  of  alfalfa 
seed  to  the  acre 
without  a  nurse 
crop,  sowing  the 
seed  with  a  broad- 
cast seeder  and 
covering  it  by  a 
light  harrowing. 
The  heavier  rate  of 
seeding  is  desirable 
in  the  humid  dis- 
tricts, particularly 
where  alfalfa  is  not 
commonly  grown. 
Twelve  to  15 
pounds  to  the 
acre  are  sufficient 
throughout  the 
Rocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  states. 
A  grass  seed  at- 
tachment to  a 
grain  drill  gives 
even  distribution 


SOWING  ALFALFA  SEED  381 

of  the  seed,  but  is  a  slower  method  than  the  use  of  some 
type  of  broadcast  seeder.  The  seed  should  be  covered  to 
a  depth  of  from  */£  inch  to  2  inches,  depending  on  the 
soil  and  the  rainfall.  It  should  be  covered  deeper  in  light 
sandy  soils  than  in  heavy  ones,  and  in  dry  sections  or  in 
dry  seasons  than  in  wet  ones. 

478.  Time  of  Seeding.    Success  is  most  often  attained 
with    alfalfa  when  it  is   sown  in  the   summer  or  early 
fall,    rather    than    in     the    spring.      From     the    middle 
of  June  to  the  middle  of  July  is  the  best  time  to  sow  alfalfa 
in  the  Northern  states;  the  latter  part  of  July  or  the  first  half 
of    August  is    preferable    in   the   central   section;    in  the 
South,  September  is  best.      The  proper  time  to  sow  varies 
to    some  extent  from    year  to    year,    as    it  is    desirable 
to  get  the  seed  into  the  ground  when  it  contains  plenty  of 
moisture.     If  the  land  has  been  prepared  some  weeks  in 
advance  and  has  been  harrowed  after  every  shower  so  as  to 
save  all  the  rain  which  has  fallen,  there  is  usually  no  trouble 
from  this  source,  except  in  the  semiarid  districts.    Where 
the  precipitation  is  light,  spring  seeding  is  often  best,  in 
order  to  take  advantage  of  the  June  rains.    There  is  usually 
more  trouble  from  weeds  with  spring  seeding,  unless  special 
treatment  was  given  the  previous  year  to  clear  the  land  of 
them. 

479.  Sowing  with  a  Nurse  Crop.    A  nurse  crop  is  not 
commonly  used  with  alfalfa,  though  in  some  sections  its 
use  is  considered  good  practice.     On  sandy  land  a  nurse 
crop  may  protect  the  young  alfalfa  plants  from  wind  injury, 
but  it  should  be  seeded  very  thinly.     Under  most  conditions, 
the  use  of  a  nurse  crop  is  more  likely  to  result  in  injury  than 
in  benefit. 

480.  Inoculation.     When  alfalfa  is  sown  for  the   first 
time  in  a  locality,  inoculation  is  quite  often  necessary  to 


382  FIELD  CROPS 

attain  success.  This  inoculation  may  be  by  means  of  soil 
from  an  old  alfalfa  field,  or  by  the  use  of  pure  cultures  of  the 
bacteria.  The  use  of  soil  from  old  fields  is  more  generally 
successful.  As  the  bacterium  on  sweet  clover  is  apparently 
the  same  as  that  on  alfalfa,  the  inoculation  of  fields  where 
this  plant  grows  freely  is  not  often  necessary,  for  the  bacteria 
transfer  readily  from  one  to  the  other.  The  bacterium  from 
red  clover  will  not  grow  on  alfalfa.  When  a  good  stand  of 
alfalfa  is  once  obtained,  it  is  then  easy  to  spread  the  bacteria 
to  other  fields  by  scattering  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  the  soil 
from  the  old  field  over  each  acre  of  the  new.  The  same 
result  may  be  obtained  if  manure  from  stock  which  have  been 
fed  on  alfalfa  hay  is  used,  while  the  dust  blown  from  one 
field  to  another  often  carries  enough  bacteria  to  inoculate 
land  on  which  the  crop  has  not  previously  been  grown. 

481.  Treatment  of  New  Meadows.    If  alfalfa  is  sown  in 
the  spring,  it  is  likely  to  need  some  attention  during  the  first 
season  in  keeping  down  weeds.     If  the  weeds  are  numerous 
and  threaten  to  destroy  the  stand  of  alfalfa,  the  plants  should 
be  clipped  back  with  the  mower  to  a  height  of  about  6  inches. 
If  the  plants  begin  to  turn  yellow,  clipping  will  often  start 
them  into  vigorous  new  growth.  If  this  yellowing  is  due  to 
disease,  the  clippings  should  be  burned,   otherwise  they 
may    be  left    as  a  mulch.     If     the    alfalfa   is   not  sown 
till   late  summer   or  early  fall,   no  clipping  or  other  treat- 
ment is  usually  necessary  that  year,  and  the  following  season 
one  or  more  crops  of  hay  may  be  cut.    The  field  should  not 
be  pastured  the  first  or  second  year,  for  the  young  crowns  are 
quite  easily  destroyed.     Later,   when  they  become  more 
firmly  established,  some  pasturing  is  possible. 

482.  Treatment  of   Old  Meadows.    On  loose  soil  no 
treatment  is  ordinarily  given  to  alfalfa  meadows  other  than 
an  occasional  harrowing.     On  land  which  is  inclined  to  pack, 


MAKING  ALFALFA  HAY  383 

disking  every  spring  with  the  disks  set  straight  so  as  to  cut 
up  the  surface,  but  not  to  throw  out  the  plants  or  cut  off 
the  crowns,  will  improve  the  growth  of  the  crop.  Disking 
should  be  done  with  caution  where  alfalfa  does  not  thrive, 
for  it  may  cause  much  more  injury  than  benefit.  If  it  seems 
desirable  to  disk  the  field,  experiment  with  a  small  portion 
of  it  for  a  season  before  risking  the  entire  acreage. 

483.  Making  the  Hay.    The  time  to  cut  alfalfa  for  hay 
is  when  the  young  sprouts  of  the  second  growth  begin  to 


Fig.  119.  Hay  caps  are  useful  in  obtaining  the  best  quality  of  hay. 
They  prevent  injury  from  rain  and  aid  in  saving  a  large  proportion  of  the 
leaves  of  clover  or  alfalfa. 

start  from  the  crowns,  which  is  when  the  plants  are  just 
coming  into  bloom.  Cutting  should  not  be  delayed  beyond 
this  time,  for  the  leaves  of  the  old  stems  will  begin  to  drop 
off,  and  the  new  growth  will  be  considerably  retarded. 
After  the  hay  is  cut,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  land  as 
soon  as  possible  in  order  to  give  the  new  growth  a  chance. 
The  growth  of  the  succeeding  crops  depends  in  large  measure 
on  the  promptness  of  cutting  at  the  proper  time  and  of 


384  FIELD  CROPS 

removing  the  hay  when  it  is  cut.  A  little  delay  at  each 
cutting  may  mean  the  loss  of  an  entire  crop  in  the  course  of 
the  season. 

The  methods  of  curing  alfalfa  hay  do  not  differ  from  those 
of  curing  clover  hay.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  hay  be 
cured  with  as  little  loss  of  leaves  as  possible,  and  that  it  be 
green  rather  than  brown  when  cured.  This  means  that  a 
large  part  of  the  curing  must  be  done  in  the  windrow  or 
cock.  Alfalfa  should  not  be  left  in  the  swath  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  wind  for  more  than  a  few  hours  unless  weather  con- 
ditions make  it  absolutely  necessary. 

After  the  hay  is  cured,  it  may  be  put  into  the  barn  or 
stack  with  the  ordinary  hay  tools.  This  is  the  usual  practice 
in  the  East,  but  in  the  West  it  is  commonly  stacked  with  the 
sweep  rakes  or  " go-devils"  in  common  use  there.  With 
these  tools,  several  hundred  pounds  of  hay  are  gathered  in 
bunches  and  brought  to  the  stacks  without  the  use  of  wagons. 
These  stacks  are  usually  scattered  over  the  fields  to  obviate 
hauling  for  long  distances,  the  several  cuttings  of  the  season 
all  being  put  into  the  same  stack  or  group  of  stacks. 

As  alfalfa  hay  does  not  shed  water  readily,  the  stacks 
should  be  covered  with  grass  hay  or  straw  to  prevent 
injury  from  the  weather.  If  the  hay  is  to  be  sold,  it  is  some- 
times baled  in  the  field  as  it  cures,  particularly  in  the  dry 
sections  of  the  West,  but  for  immediate  baling  it  must  be 
much  drier  than  for  stacking. 

484.  Harvesting  the  Seed.  The  best  seed  crops  of 
alfalfa  are  produced  only  in  the  drier  portions  of  the  country. 
Alfalfa  does  not  produce  good  seed  freely  under  humid  con- 
ditions, though  a  good  quality  and  yield  of  seed  can  some- 
times be  obtained.  Most  of  the  seed  which  is  now  raised 
in  the  United  States  is  produced  in  the  irrigated  districts 
of  the  West,  though  some  dry-land  alfalfa  seed  is  grown. 


ALFALFA  SEED  CROP 


385 


As  light  and  air  are  needed  for  the  production  of  seed,  the 
best  conditions  are  obtained  by  thin  seeding  in  rows.  As 
soon  as  the  seed  crop  is  removed,  the  land  should  be  culti- 
vated to  start  new  growth.  This  method  may  also  be  used 
for  the  production  of  hay  where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient 
to  grow  it  by  ordinary  methods. 


Fig.  120.  Cutting  alfalfa  for  seed  with  the  self-rake  reaper.  This 
machine  is  still  used  in  some  sections  for  harvesting  grain.  It  deposits 
the  crop  in  bunches,  as  shown  at  the  right  in  the  picture. 

The  alfalfa  seed  crop  should  be  handled  in  about  the  same 
way  as  a  seed  crop  of  clover.  Since  the  seed  sets  best  only 
in  hot,  dry  weather,  the  second  crop  is  usually  left  for  seed, 
conditions  then  being  more  favorable  than  at  any  other 
season.  When  irrigated  alfalfa  is  grown  for  seed,  that 
particular  crop  is  not  usually  irrigated.  The  seed  crop  should 
be  cut  when  about  three-fourths  of  the  pods  are  brown; 
if  left  till  later,  many  of  the  earliest  and  best  pods  will  drop 


386  FIELD  CROPS 

off  and  be  lost.  The  seed  is  usually  hulled  without  stacking, 
for  it  should  be  handled  as  little  as  possible.  A  fair  crop  of 
seed  is  3  or  4  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  as  the  price  is  usually 
high,  the  seed  crop  is  often  a  paying  one. 

486.  Insect  and  Rodent  Pests.  The  grasshopper  is  the 
most  serious  insect  enemy  of  alfalfa  in  most  sections.  Disk- 
ing the  field  in  the  very  early  spring  is  sometimes  beneficial, 
since  it  exposes  the  young  grasshoppers  to  the  spring  frosts 
and  the  attacks  of  birds.  The  use  of  the  "hopperdozer," 
an  implement  which  when  drawn  across  the  fields  knocks  the 
insects  into  a  pan  of  oil,  is  sometimes  necessary  when  the 
pests  become  serious.  Blister  beetles  sometimes  cause 
injury;  cutting  the  crop  when  they  appear  forces  them  to 
migrate.  Such  rodents  as  prairie  dogs  and  meadow  mice 
are  destructive  to  stands  of  alfalfa  in  the  West.  These  can 
best  be  dealt  with  by  poisoning  with  grain  or  potatoes  soaked 
in  strychnine,  or  by  pouring  carbon  bisulfid  into  the  burrows. 

486.  Diseases.    Various  rusts,  leaf-spots,  and  mildews 
sometimes  attack  alfalfa,  particularly  when  it  is  growing 
under  unfavorable  circumstances.    About  the  only  remedy 
is  to  mow  the  field,  removing  the  diseased  stems  and  leaves 
and  encouraging  the  development  of  strong  new  growth. 
In  Texas,  a  disease  known  as  root-rot  is  destructive  to  this 
and  other  tap-rooted  plants.    This  can  best  be  kept  in  check 
by  growing  grain  or  corn  on  the  land  for  several  years,  as 
these  plants  are  not  affected. 

487.  Weeds.    Numerous  weeds  make  the  growing  of 
alfalfa  rather  difficult;  wild  barley,  crabgrass,  and  foxtail 
are    particularly    troublesome.     In    the  blue  grass    region, 
Kentucky  blue  grass  is  one  of  the  worst  pests  with  which  the 
alfalfa  grower  has  to  contend.    All  these  plants  can  be  kept 
down  to  some  extent  by  disking,  but  when  they  once  gain  a 
foothold,  it  is  often  better  to  break  up  the  alfalfa  sod  and 


ROTATIONS  WITH  ALFALFA  387 

cultivate  the  land  for  a  couple  of  years  before  starting  anew. 
Where  these  grasses  are  common,  a  short  rotation  is  better 
than  leaving  the  land  in  alfalfa  for  many  years. 

Alfalfa  dodder  is  as  serious  a  pest  as  dodder  in  clover. 
The  same  remedies,  the  sowing  of  clean  seed  and  the  removal 
of  all  dodder  plants  wherever  they  appear,  are  applicable. 

488.  Alfalfa  in  Rotations.  In  the  sections  of  the  country 
where  alfalfa  does  not  succeed  particularly  well  or  where  it  is 
not  a  leading  crop  and  more  particularly  where  weedy  grasses 
crowd  it  out  after  a  few  years,  the  use  of  this  crop  in  a  four- 
or  five-year  rotation  is  usually  advisable.  A  good  rotation 
for  these  conditions,  consists  of  oats  or  some  other  small 
grain,  alfalfa  and  corn.  The  ground  is  prepared  for  alfalfa 
as  soon  as  the  small  grain  is  removed  in  the  summer,  and  the 
seed  is  sown  a  few  weeks  later.  The  following  two  to  five 
years  the  alfalfa  is  cut  for  hay,  and  then  the  sod  is  broken 
for  corn.  From  one  to  three  crops  of  corn  and  two  or  three 
crops  of  small  grain  are  grown,  to  be  again  followed  by 
alfalfa.  Numerous  variations  of  this  rotation  may  be 
devised,  such  as  the  use  of  a  crop  of  early  potatoes  or  other 
truck  crop  before  seeding  alfalfa,  or  the  substitution  of 
potatoes  for  corn  where  corn  is  not  grown. 

In  some  sections,  it  is  desirable  to  leave  a  piece  of  land 
in  alfalfa  for  a  number  of  years.  No  definite  rotation  is  then 
followed,  the  land  being  left  in  alfalfa  as  long  as  it  continues 
to  yield  profitable  crops.  The  best  success  can  be  obtained 
from  this  system  only  when  the  supply  of  phosphorus  and 
potash  is  maintained  by  the  addition  of  fertilizers.  When 
old  alfalfa  sod  is  broken,  the  land  is  planted  to  potatoes,  corn, 
or  small  grain  for  a  few  years,  and  then  reseeded  to  alfalfa. 
Larger  profits  would  often  be  made  if  the  sod  were  broken 
at  shorter  intervals  and  a  regular  rotation  followed,  as  the 
loss  from  diseases  and  insects  would  be  reduced. 


388  FIELD  CROPS 

In  the  cotton  section,  corn,  cotton,  and  alfalfa  can  be 
worked  into  a  good  rotation,  particularly  if  some  small  grain 
is  grown.  Alfalfa  can  be  sown  to  best  advantage  in  this 
section  on  land  from  which  a  grain  crop  has  been 
removed.  After  two  or  three  years,  when  it  is  desired  to 
break  up  the  stand  of  alfalfa,  a  crop  of  corn  may  be  grown, 
followed  by  a  crop  of  cotton.  Winter  grain  may  then  be  sown 
in  the  cotton  stalks  in  the  fall,  and  the  alfalfa  seeded  the  fol- 
lowing season  after  the  grain  is  removed. 

489.  Use  of  the  Hay.    By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
alfalfa  crop  is  used  for  hay.    This  hay  can  be  fed  to  all 
kinds  of  stock,  including  even  hogs  and  poultry.     It  is  rich 
in  feeding  value,  11  pounds  of  it  containing  as  much  protein 
as  10  pounds  of  bran.    It  contains  nearly  twice  as  much  pro- 
tein as  clover  hay  and  as  much  of  the  other  nutrients.    When 
fed  to  dairy  cattle,  it  can  largely  take  the  place  of  grain  or 
mill  feeds.     It  produces  rapid  gains  on  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs,  when  fed  with  corn  or  other  grain  rich  in  carbohydrates. 
Growing  stock  of  all  kinds  utilize  alfalfa  to  good  advantage, 
and  it  produces  excellent  results  when  fed  to  laying  hens. 

490.  Alfalfa   Pasture.    While   the   stand   of   alfalfa   is 
injured  if  it  is  pastured  too  closely,  where  this  crop  is  grown 
in  a  short  rotation  there  is  little  harm  in  pasturing  it.     No 
better  pasture  for  hogs  can  be  found.     If  it  is  desired  to 
pasture  the  same  field  for  several  years,  a  large  enough 
acreage  should  be  provided  so  that  it  is  never  eaten  down 
close.     If  necessary,  it  may  be  cut  for   hay  at   intervals 
during  the  season.    Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  bloating  in 
first  turning  cattle  and  sheep  on  alfalfa  pasture  (Sec.  462). 

491.  Alfalfa  for  Soiling.    Perhaps  as  large  returns  are 
obtained  from  soiling  alfalfa  as  in  any  other  way.     It  starts 
into  growth  again  quickly  and  there  is  no  waste  in  feeding. 
The  largest  yields  are  obtained  if  it  is  cut  just  when  the  new 


ALFALFA  LITERATURE  389 

sprouts  start  from  the  crown,  for  then  there  is  no  delay  in 
the  production  of  the  next  crop. 

492.  Alfalfa  Meal.  During  recent  years  the  manu- 
facture of  meal  from  alfalfa  hay  has  attained  some  promi- 
nence. This  is  simply  the  hay  ground  fine,  so  that  stock  eat 
the  coarser  stems  as  well  as  the  leaves.  In  this  form  it  can 
be  fed  without  loss  to  all  kinds  6f  stock,  including  poultry. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

A  study  of  the  growth  of  alfalfa,  its  root  system,  and  the  tubercles 
on  its  roots,  may  be  made  in  the  field  if  the  crop  is  grown  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. At  least  a  small  plot  of  this  plant  should  be  grown  on  the 
school  farm.  Some  time  may  well  be  spent  in  the  study  of  alfalfa 
seed,  to  become  familiar  with  the  seed  and  to  aid  in  detecting 
adulterants  and  other  impurities. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

194.  Alfalfa  Seed. 

276.  Alfalfa  in  the  East  (pp.  9-14) 

315.  Legume  Inoculation. 

339.  Alfalfa. 

353.  Dodder  in  Alfalfa  Seed  (pp.  7-9). 

373.  The  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. 

382.  Adulteration  of  Forage-Plant  Seeds. 

384.  Alfalfa  Meal  (pp.  12-14). 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  192-197. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  95-102. 
Coburn's  Alfalfa. 
Coburn's  The  Book  of  Alfalfa. 

Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  174-199. 
Shaw's  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  118-193. 
Voorhees'  Forage  Crops,  pp.  209-230. 
Wing's  Alfalfa  in  America. 
Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures,  pp.  212-250. 


CHAPTER  XX 
MISCELLANEOUS  LEGUMES 

493.  Other  Useful  Legumes.  In  addition  to  the  clovers 
and  alfalfa,  there  are  a  number  of  legumes  which  are  grown 
in  a  more  or  less  limited  way  for  forage  or  for  their  seeds,  or 
both.  Among  the  plants  which  are  grown  under  field  condi- 
tions for  both  seed  and  forage  are  the  cowpea,  soy  bean,  field 
pea,  and  peanut,  while  the  field  bean  is  grown  for  the  seeds 
alone.  In  districts  where  canning  factories  are  located,  the 
common  garden  pea  is  grown  in  large  fields.  Among  the 
plants  which  are  grown  for  forage  or  for  green  manure  are 
the  sweet  clovers,  bur  clover,  Japan  clover,  the  vetches,  and 
the  velvet  bean. 

Of  these  legumes,  some  are  fully  as  important  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  they  are  grown  as  are  alfalfa  and  red  clover  in 
the  regions  to  which  they  are  adapted,  and  very  largely  take 
the  place  of  those  standard  forage  plants.  Thus,  in  the 
South,  the  cowpea  is  the  most  important  forage  plant  and 
soil  renovator.  In  some  sections  of  the  North  a  similar 
place  is  held  by  the  field  pea.  Japan  clover  largely  takes 
the  place  of  white  clover  in  southern  pastures,  while  on  the 
sandy  lands  of  Florida  the  velvet  bean  is  the  most  important 
forage  and  green  manure  plant. 

A  number  of  other  less  important  leguminous  plants  are 
grown  in  a  limited  way  in  some  portions  of  the  country,  but 
they  are  not  of  enough  importance  to  require  extended  dis- 
cussion. Among  these  plants  may  be  mentioned  sainfoin, 
Egyptian  clover,  beggar  weed,  trefoil,  lupines,  and  horse 
bean. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COWPEA  391 

THE  COWPEA 

494.  Origin  and  Description.    The  cowpea,  Vigna  ungui- 
culata,  is  a  native  of  China,  where  it  has  been  cultivated  for 
many   centuries.     Its  introduction  into  the  southern  United 
States  dates  back  only  a  few  decades.    The  plant,  which  is 
an  annual,  resembles  the  bean  much  more  closely  than  it 
does  the  pea,  the  habit  of  growth  and  the  forms  of  the  leaves 
and  seeds  being  quite  similar  to  the  garden  bean.      The 
plants  vary  greatly  in  habit,  some 

of  the  varieties  standing  erect  and 
reaching  a  height  of  15  to  18 
inches,  while  others  are  trailing  or 
twining  and  grow  several  feet  long. 
The  leaflets  are  three  in  number; 
they  vary  in  length  from  2  to  6 
inches  and  are  nearly  as  wide  as 
they  are  long.  The  greenish-yellow 
flowers,  which  are  shaped  like  those 
of  the  pea,  are  borne  on  long  stalks. 
The  pods  are  several  inches  long, 
cylindrical,  and  contain  from  six  to 
fifteen  seeds.  The  seeds  are  about 
the  size  of  a  navy  bean,  though  Fig.  121.  Cowpea  branch 

,1  •  ••!  .     ,.  with  leaves,  pods,  and  flowers. 

there  is  wide  variation  among  the 

different  varieties,  in  the  size  of  the  seed  as  well  as  in  the 

color  of  the  seed  coat. 

495.  Importance.    The    cowpea    is    fast    becoming    as 
great  a  factor  in  the  agriculture  of  the  South  as  clover  is  in 
that  of  the  North  or  alfalfa  in  the  West.    As  it  grows  only 
in  warm  weather  and  needs  a  rather  long  season  to  develop, 
it  is  confined  largely  to  the  Southern  states,  though  a  few 


392  FIELD  CROPS 

early  varieties  are  grown  as  far  north  as  Michigan.  The 
general  culture  of  the  plant  does  not  extend  north  of  Kansas, 
Kentucky,  and  Maryland.  No  definite  estimate  of  the 
acreage  devoted  to  this  crop  can  be  made,  but  it  is  rapidly 
increasing  all  over  the  South.  It  is  used  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
as  a  hay  or  seed  crop,  as  a  pasture  crop,  as  a  gatherer  of 
nitrogen,  and  as  a  green  manure  crop  to  add  both  humus  and 
nitrogen.  It  is  sown  alone  or  in  combination  with  other 
crops,  a  common  practice  being  to  sow  it  with  corn  at  the  last 
cultivation,  either  in  the  rows  or  between  them. 

496.  Varieties.    Numerous    varieties    of    cowpeas    are 
grown,  the  number  of  names  probably  reaching  seventy-five 
or  one  hundred.    These  vary  in  habit  of  growth,  shape  and 
color  of  the  seed,  length  of  growing  season,  and  in  other 
characters.    One  of  the  most  common  is  the  Whippoorwill, 
a  vigorous-growing,  fairly  erect  variety  with  mottled  red- 
dish or  chocolate-colored  seeds.     It  is  largely  grown  for  the 
production  of  both  grain  and  hay.     The  Iron  has  small, 
clay-colored  seeds.    The  vine  is  an  erect  grower,   seeds 
freely,  and  as  the  plants  are  resistant  to  disease,  it  is  coming 
to  be  a  popular  variety.    The  New  Era  and  one  or  two 
similar  varieties  of  small-seeded,  mottled  peas  which  grow 
erect  and  mature  early  are  grown  to  some  extent  in  the  North, 
but  are  of  little  importance  farther  south  where  the  stronger- 
growing,  later  varieties  can  be  grown.     Other  more  or  less 
prominent  varieties  are  the  Black,   Blackeye,   Unknown, 
Red  Ripper,  Browneye,  Taylor,  and  the  various  Crowders, 
the  latter  name  being  given  because  of  the  crowded  appear- 
ance of  the  peas  in  the  pod. 

497.  Soils  and  Fertilizers.    Cowpeas  will  grow  on  almost 
any  soil,  though  naturally  they  grow  better  on  a  fertile 
loam  than  elsewhere.    Some  varieties,  like  the  Black,  are 
particularly  adapted  to  sandy  land.     Others  do  better  on 


THE  CULTURE  OF  COWPEAS  393 

the  heavier  clays  and  clay  loams.  As  the  cowpea  is  a  nitro- 
gen gatherer,  this  element  need  not  be  supplied.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  food  material  is  stored  in  the  large 
seed,  and  the  young  plant  is  able  to  develop  a  vigorous  root 
system  before  this  is  exhausted,  which  explains  why  the  cow- 
pea  thrives  on  land  that  is  very  low  in  fertility.  Rich  land 
tends  to  produce  vines  at  the  expense  of  seed  production. 
A  fair  supply  of  potash  and  phosphorus  is  necessary  for  the 
best  growth  of  the  crop,  and  on  poor  soils  greatly  increased 
yields  are  obtained  when  these 'elements  are  supplied. 

498.  Growing  the  Crop.  Though  the  plants  will  grow 
fairly  well  on  land  that  has  had  little  attention,  the  stronger 
growth  in  a  good  seed  bed  pays  well  for  the  extra  work  of 
preparation.  The  land  is  usually  plowed  for  cowpeas,  though 
when  they  follow  a  grain  crop  or  a  cultivated  crop  late  in 
the  season,  the  seed  may  be  disked  or  cultivated  in  without 
plowing.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast,  with  the  grain  drill, 
or  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  cultivate.  When  grown  for 
hay,  one  of  the  first  two  methods  is  used,  while  for  seed  pro- 
duction the  plants  are  more  often  grown  in  cultivated  rows. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  from  !}/£  to  2 
inches.  As  the  plants  are  tender,  seeding  should  not  begin 
till  after  all  danger  of  frost  is  past  and  the  weather  is  warm. 
Sowings  can  be  made  from  that  time  up  to  August  in  the 
South,  while  along  the  northern  limit  of  their  cultivation, 
seed  may  be  sown  as  late  as  July  10  with  fair  prospect  of  a 
good  hay  crop.  The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is  2  to  3  pecks  in 
rows,  4  to  5  pecks  when  sown  with  the  grain  drill,  and  6  to 
8  pecks  when  sown  broadcast.  When  grown  for  hay,  the 
date  of  planting  is  usually  fixed  so  that  the  harvest  comes  in 
September,  since  weather  conditions  are  generally  more 
favorable  for  curing  at  that  time  than  at  any  other.  Cow- 
peas  sown  broadcast  or  with  the  grain  drill  require  no  further 


394  FIELD  CROPS 

treatment  till  harvest.  Those  sown  in  rows  are  cultivated 
much  like  corn,  though  two  or  three  cultivations  are  all  that 
are  usually  necessary,  for  the  plants  soon  cover  the  ground. 

499.  Making  Cowpea  Hay.    Cowpeas  should  be  cut  for 
hay  when  one-third  or  more  of  the  pods  are  ripe.  '  The  hay 
will  then  contain  the  largest  quantity  of  nutriment.    If  left 
till  half  or  more  are  ripe,  some  of  the  peas  are  likely  to  shell 
out  in  handling  and  the  leaves  may  begin  to  drop  before 
cutting.    The  hay  is  usually  cut  with  the  mower  and  is  left 
in  the  swath  for  two  or  three  days  to  cure.    When  cut  at 
this  stage  the  hay  cures  quite  rapidly,  but  the  best  hay  is 
made  if  it  is  put  up  in  cocks  after  it  has  partly  cured  in  the 
swath.    In  wet  weather,  frames  are  sometimes  used  to  raise 
the  hay  off  the  ground  and  admit  air  to  all  parts  of  the  cock. 
After  the  hay  is  cured,  it  may  be  stacked  or  put  in  the  mow 
the  same  as  other  hay. 

500.  Harvesting  the   Seed   Crop.    The   best  crops  of 
cowpea  seed  are  produced  when  the  plants  are  grown  in 
rows  and  cultivated.    The  crop  should  not  be  harvested  till 
two-thirds  or  more  of  the  pods  are  fully  ripe.    The  pods  may 
be  picked  by  hand,  or  the  entire  plant  may  be  harvested 
by 'cutting  with  a  self -rake  reaper,  a  bean  harvester,  or  an 
ordinary  mower    with  or  without  a  buncher  attachment. 
In  any  case,  the  pods  and  vines  should  be  thoroughly  dry 
before  they  are  thrashed.     If  the  vines  are  harvested,  the 
use  of  racks  for  drying  is  quite  generally  advisable  to  prevent 
the  peas  from  molding  in  the  cocks.    After  the  vines  are 
cured,  they  may  be  put  in  the  mow  or  stack  and  thrashed 
out  as  desired.    The  thrashing  may  be  done  with  a  flail, 
with '  the  ordinary  thrashing  machine  with  part  of  the  con- 
caves removed,  or  with  a  special  pea  thrasher. 

601.  Cowpeas  as  Feed  for  Stock.    Cowpea  hay  may  be 
fed  to  all  classes  of  stock,  but  is  particularly  good  for  feeding 


THE  USES  OF  COWPEAS  395 

to  dairy  cows,  sheep,  and  hogs.  It  makes  an  excellent  addi- 
tion to  the  ration  for  beef  cattle,  and  is  also  largely  fed  to 
horses  in  some  districts.  The  hay,  particularly  if  it  contains 
a  fair  percentage  of  seed,  is  very  rich  in  protein,  and  contains 
a  good  supply  of  the  other  food  constituents.  The  straw 
from  the  production  of  cowpea  seed  is  less  valuable  than  cow- 
pea  hay,  since  it  contains  fewer  leaves,  practically  no  seeds, 


Fig.  122.  Plowing  under  cowpeas  to  add  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil.     Note 
the  pulverizer  behind  the  plow  to  break  up  clods  and  pack  the  loose  earth. 

and  the  vines  are  coarser  and  less  palatable.  It  does  con- 
tain considerable  nutriment,  however,  and  when  fed  with 
other  material,  makes  good  roughage.  The  seeds  of  cow- 
peas  are  usually  too  high  in  price  to  be  fed  with  profit,  but 
they  are  an  excellent  feed  for  stock  of  all  kinds,  including 
poultry.  The  cowpea  plant  makes  very  good  pasture, 
though  better  results  are  usually  obtained  from  other  uses. 


396  FIELD  CROPS 

A  field  of  mature  cowpeas  can  be  cheaply  and  profitably 
harvested  by  pasturing  it  off  with  hogs  or  sheep:  Cattle 
also  thrive  on  cowpea  pasture,  but  should  be  turned  in  before 
the  peas  mature. 

502.  Use  as  a  Soil  Improver.    One  of  the  most  important 
uses  of  the  cowpea  is  in  the  building  up  of  poor  or  worn-out 
soils.    When  the  entire  plant  is  turned  under,  it  adds  large 
quantities  of  vegetable  matter  containing  a  considerable 
supply  of  nitrogen.    When  the  stubble  alone  is  plowed  under, 
the  vigorous  roots  materially  improve  the  condition  of  the 
soil  and  some  nitrogen  is  added.    Practically  all  crops  grow 
better  after  cowpeas;  largely  increased  yields  have  been 
obtained  at  all  the  southern  experiment  stations  following 
this  crop. 

503.  Growing    with    Other    Crops.     Cowpeas    are    fre- 
quently grown  with  other  crops,  including  sorghum,  corn, 
and  millet.    When  grown  with  sorghum  or  millet,  the  seed 
is  usually  sown  broadcast  and  the  crop  cut  for  hay  or  for 
green  forage.    The  addition  of  these  plants  makes  the  hay 
somewhat  easier  to  cure  and  also  increases  the  yield.     Peas 
may  be  planted  in  the  rows  with  corn  and  may  grow  along 
with  the  crop,  both  being  cut  for  fodder  or  for  silage,  or  they 
may  be  planted  in  the  corn  at  the  last  cultivation.     In  the 
latter  case,  they  are  pastured  off  with  the  corn  stalks  after 
the  corn  is  harvested,  or  the  vines  are  turned  under  to  add 
vegetable  matter  to  the  soil. 

504.  Insects  and  Diseases.    Cowpeas  are  seldom  injured 
by  insects  when  growing,  but  weevils  are  very  destructive 
to  the  seed  after  it  is  harvested.     It  is  generally  believed 
that  they  damage  the  seed  less  in  the  pod  than  when  it  is 
thrashed,  and  so  it  is  rather  a  common  practice  not  to  thrash 
the  seed  till  near  planting  time  in  the  spring.     In  thrashed 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SOY  BEAN  397 

seed,  they  may  be  killed  by  fumigating  in  tight  boxes  or  bins 
with  carbon  bisulfid  (Sec.  135). 

The  most  troublesome  diseases  are  root  knot  and  wilt, 
which  usually  occur  only  on  sandy  soils  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast.  The  best  preventive  measures  are  rotation  of  crops 
and  the  use  of  resistant  varieties,  such  as  Iron. 

505.  Use  in  Rotations.    Since  corn  and  cotton  are  the 
most  important  crops  in  the  region  where  cowpeas  are  most 
largely  grown,  all  rotations  are  usually  based  on  these  two 
crops.    A  good  rotation  is  (1)  cotton;  (2)  corn  with  cowpeas 
sown  with  it;  (3)  winter  grain  sown  after  the  corn  is  removed, 
followed  the  next  summer  by  cowpeas  sown  on  the  stubble 
for  hay  or  seed.    Numerous  variations  of  this  rotation  may 
be  devised,  but  if  possible  a  crop  of  cowpeas  should  be  turned 
under  and  one  harvested  for  hay  or  seed  once  in  three  years. 
As  the  seasons  are  long  and  the  crops  make  rapid  growth  in 
warm  weather,  the  plan  of  growing  cowpeas  after  a  grain 
crop  has  been  harvested  is  entirely  practicable  in  the  South. 

THE  SOY  BEAN 

506.  Origin  and  Description.    Much  that  has  been  said 
regarding  the  cowpea  applies  equally  well  to  the  soy  bean. 
This  plant  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  recent 
years  from  Japan  and  China,  where,  like  the  cowpea,  it  has 
been  cultivated  for  many  centuries.    The  growth  is  usually 
erect,  with  stiff,  hairy  stems  and  numerous  large,  broad 
leaves.    The  leaves,  which  are  borne  on  long  stems,  consist 
of  three  leaflets.    The  leaflets  are  from  2  to  3  inches  long; 
the  width  is  about  two-thirds  the  length.    The  flowers  are 
small,  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  are  usually 
pale  purple  or  lilac  in  color.    The  short,  hairy  pods  contain 
two  or  three  round  or  slightly  flattened  seeds.    The  seeds 
are  usually  black,  green,  or  yellow;  they  range  in  diameter 


398 


FIELD  CROPS 


from  one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch.  The  size  of  the 
plant,  the  habit  of  growth,  and  the  size  and  color  of  the  seeds 
vary  even  more  than  these  characters  of  the  cowpea.  While 
most  of  the  varieties  are  erect  and  vary  in  height  from  1  to  4 
feet,  some  sorts  have  small  seeds,  small  leaves  and  a  trailing 
habit,  the  vines  reaching  a  length  of  several  feet.  The  most 

prominent  varieties  are  Mam- 
moth, Ito  San,  and  Early 
Yellow. 

507.  Importance.  The  soy 
bean  does  not  yet  occupy  a  very 
prominent  place  in  the  United 
States,  though  in  China  and 
Japan  it  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant crops  for  the  production 
of  grain  and  oil.  As  the  plant 
is  less  easily  injured  by  frost 
than  the  cowpea,  it  can  be  grown 
farther  north.  Its  greatest  use- 
fulness will  probably  be  along 
the  northern  border  of  the  sec- 
tion where  cowpeas  are  grown, 
from  Kansas,  Kentucky,  and 
Maryland  northward.  The  soy 
bean  grows  very  well  on  poor 
and  sandy  lands,  and  may  be- 
come as  important  for  the  building  up  of  poor  soils  and 
for  forage  in  this  region  as  the  cowpea  now  is  farther  south. 
608.  Growing  the  Crop.  The  methods  of  growing  soy 
beans  differ  little  from  those  in  use  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
cowpea  crop.  The  plants  are  more  often  grown  in  rows  and 
cultivated,  as  the  crop  is  generally  grown  for  the  production 
of  seed  as  well  as  forage.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  should 


Fig.  123.  Soy  bean  plant.     Note 
the  nodules  on  the  roots. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  SOY  BEAN  399 

be  thorough.  Little  fertilization  is  necessary,  for  the  plants 
grow  well  on  poor  land  and  are  able  to  obtain  their  supply 
of  nitrogen  from  the  air.  Soy  beans  grow  better  on  sandy 
or  loam  soils  than  on  heavy  clay.  Inoculation  with  the 
proper  bacteria  is  necessary  for  the  best  success  in  new 
districts.  The  tubercles  of  the  soy  bean  are  large,  and  they 
store  up  considerable  nitrogen  in  the  soil  when  the  plant  is 
grown  under  proper  conditions. 

When  the  crop  is  to  be  cultivated,  the  rows  should  be 
from  2  J/2  to  3  feet  apart.  Since  the  plants  stand  upright, 
they  can  be  cultivated  longer  than  cowpeas.  Three  or  four 
cultivations  are  usually  sufficient,  though  the  number 
depends  on  the  soil  and  the  season.  Seed  should  not  be 
sown  till  after  danger  of  frost  is  past;  it  may  be  sown  up  to 
July  1  in  the  Central  states,  and  three  or  four  weeks  later 
farther  south.  The  rate  of  planting  varies  from  1J^  to  2 
pecks  in  rows  to  4  pecks  when  sown  broadcast. 

509.  Harvesting.  The  methods  of  harvesting  differ 
but  little  from  those  described  for  the  cowpea.  The  plants 
should  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  dry  in  the  swath,  or  there 
will  be  considerable  loss  of  seed  and  leaves.  As  the  seed 
shatters  readily,  it  must  be  cut  before  all  the  pods  mature, 
else  much  of  it  will  be  lost.  Small  areas  may  be  pulled  by 
hand  and  the  seed  beaten  out  with  a  flail.  Larger  fields 
may  be  thrashed  with  the  ordinary  thrashing  machine  or 
with  the  special  bean  thrasher.  The  seed  should  not  be 
stored  in  large  quantities  without  plenty  of  ventilation,  for 
it  is  likely  to  heat,  thus  lowering  the  germination. 

610.  Uses  of  the  Plant.  The  uses  of  the  soy  bean  do  not 
differ  materially  from  those  of  the  cowpea.  As  the  plants 
grow  erect,  they  are  easily  harvested  for  hay.  They  are 
sometimes  sown  with  sorghum,  cowpeas,  or  other  crops  for 
the  production  of  mixed  hay  or  silage.  The  feeding  value 


400  FJELD  CROPS 

of  the  hay  is  about  the  same  as  cowpea  hay,  though  stock 
do  not  eat  the  stems  and  pods  as  readily.  As  pasture,  they 
are  hardly  so  good  as  cowpeas.  The  grain  is  very  rich  in  oil 
and  protein,  but  contains  little  starch.  In  combination  with 
corn,  they  produce  very  economical  gains  when  fed  to  cattle 
and  hogs.  As  the  seeds  are  hard  and  not  easily  crushed  by 
stock,  they  are  usually  ground  and  fed  as  meal.  In  China 
and  Japan,  the  seed  of  the  soy  bean  is  an  important  article 
of  human  food,  and  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oil. 

THE  PEANUT 

511.  The  Peanut,  Arachis  hypogea,  differs  from  the  other 
members  of  this  family  which  are  commonly  cultivated  in 
that  the  seed  pods  are  produced  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.    The  peanut  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  tropical 
South  America;  it  is  one  of  the  few  leguminous  plants  native 
to  the  New  World  which  have  found  their  way  into  culti- 
vation.   The  plant  produces  many  leafy  stems,  from  12 
to  18  inches  tall;  the  leaflets  are  three  in  number  and  about 
1  inch  long.   The  flowers,  which  are  produced  in  the  axils  of 
the  branches,  are  small  and  yellow.    After  the  flower  falls 
away,  the  stem  on  which  it  grew  elongates  and  enters  the 
soil,  and  the  pod  or  nut  then  forms  below  the  surface.     For 
this  reason,  peanuts  .can  be  grown  best  on  loose  soils. 

512.  Importance.    While  we  ordinarily  think  of  peanuts 
only  as  we  commonly  see  the  roasted  nuts  for  sale  on  the 
street  corners,  the  seed  is  largely  used  in  other  ways,  and 
the  vines  make  excellent  forage  for  stock.     The  peanut  crop 
of  the  United  States  is  worth  perhaps  fifteen  million  dollars 
annually.     It  is  largely  produced  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
the  sandy  lands  there  being  particularly  adapted  to  it. 
The  larger  portion  of  the  crop  is  grown  in  Virginia,  though 
it  thrives  under  proper  soil  conditions  throughout  the  South. 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  PEANUTS 


401 


513.  Cultivation.  Peanuts  grow  best  in  a  fairly  fertile 
sandy  loam  soil  which  has  been  well  prepared.  They  should 
be  planted  in  rows  30  to  36  inches  apart  after  the  soil  is 
thoroughly  warm  in  the  spring,  generally  after  corn  has  been 
planted.  The  seed  of  the  larger  varieties  is  usually  shelled 
before  planting,  but  the  Spanish  peanuts  are  often  planted 


Fig.  124.  The  Virginia  peanut,  the  type    usually    grown    for   the    nuts.     The 
Spanish  peanut,  which  produces  numerous  small  nuts,  is  grown  for  forage. 

without  shelling.  The  one-row  planter  is  commonly  used 
for  planting.  The  common  rate  of  seeding  is  1  peck  of 
shelled  Spanish  peanuts  or  5  pecks  in  the  shell,  while  l^j 
pecks  of  shelled  Virginia  peanuts  will  plant  an  acre.  After 
the  plants  are  up,  frequent  shallow  cultivation  should  be 


402  FIELD  CROPS 

given  to  keep  the  soil  loose  till  the  pods  begin  to  form. 
After  that  time,  the  ground  should  not  be  disturbed  till 
harvest. 

514.  Harvesting.     When  the  greater  part  of  the  nuts  are 
mature,  the  crop  should  be  harvested,  for  if  left  longer  the 
nuts  which  ripened  first  are  likely  to  sprout.     The  plants  are 
usually  dug  with  a  potato  digger  or  are  plowed  out,  though 
small  areas  on  loose  soil  can  be  pulled  by  hand  with  little 
loss.    After  the  vines  are  pulled,  they  are  left  to  dry  slightly 
and  are  then  put  in  small  stacks  to  cure.    These  stacks  are 
usually  built  around  a  framework  which  admits  air  to  all 
portions  of  the  stack.     The  top  should  be  covered  to  prevent 
injury  from  rain,  as  the  market  value  of  the    nuts    is   re- 
duced if  they  are  discolored. 

After  the  vines  are  cured,  the  nuts  are  picked  off  by  hand 
or  removed  by  machinery,  and  are  then  cleaned  and  sorted. 
The  marketable  nuts  are  put  into  large  sacks  for  the  market, 
while  the  smaller  nuts  are  fed  to  hogs  or  other  stock.  The 
vines  from  which  the  nuts  have  been  picked  are  of  con- 
siderable value  as  forage. 

515.  Uses  of  the  Nuts.    In  addition  to  the  use  of  pea- 
nuts in  the  roasted  state,  large  quantities  are  used  in  the 
production  of  peanut  oil,  peanut  butter,  and  other  similar 
food  products,  salted  peanuts,  and  various  peanut  candies. 
The  nuts  are  also  fed  to  stock,  particularly  to  hogs.    The 
Spanish  variety  is  often  planted  in  the  South  for  hog  pasture, 
the  hogs  being  turned  in  when  the  pods  are  mature  and 
allowed  to  root  out  the  nuts.    As  both  the  vines  and  nuts 
are  eaten,  this  is  a  very  economical  method  of  producing 
pork.    The  peanut  vines,  especially  if  the  nuts  have  not 
been  removed,  are  very  valuable  as  forage,  and  considerable 
acreages  are  grown  in  the  South  every  year  for  this  purpose. 


THE  FIELD  PEA. 


403 


THE  FIELD  PEA 

516.  Origin  and  Description.  The  field  pea  or  Canadian 
field  pea,  Pisum  arvense,  is  a  native  of  the  region  north  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  the  latter  name  has  been  given  to 
it  simply  because  the  plant  is  of  more  importance  in  Canada 
than  elsewhere  in  America.  It  differs  little  in  appear- 
ance from  the  common  garden  pea,  except  that  the  vines  are 
larger  and  more  vigorous  than 
most  varieties  of  the  garden  pea, 
and  the  flowers  are  usually  pale 
purple  or  violet  instead  of  white. 
The  vines  reach  a  length  of  sev- 
eral feet;  some  varieties  branch 
quite  freely.  The  pods,  which 
are  long  and  straight,  contain 
several  white  or  blue  peas. 

617.  Importance  of  the  Crop. 
Field  peas  are  most  largely 
grown  in  the  states  along  the 
Canadian  border,  and  in  Colo- 
rado; one  of  the  most  important 
districts  is  the  San  Luis  Valley 
in  the  latter  state.  In  Ontario 
and  other  portions  of  Canada 
the  field  pea  is  much  more  generally  grown  than  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  Northern  states  and  in  Canada, 
peas  are  usually  grown  in  combination  with  oats  or  barley 
for  hay,  though  they  are  also  grown  alone  for  the  seed. 

518.  Methods  of  Growing.  The  usual  method  of  grow- 
ing peas  is  to  sow  from  1  to  2  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  with 
a  bushel  of  barley  or  oats,  the  grain  furnishing  a  support  for 
the  pea  vines  and  making  them  easier  to  harvest.  The 


Fig.  125.  Branch  of  field  pea  with 
pods  and    flowers. 


404  FIELD  CROPS 

growth  of  peas  is  also  better  and  they  are  less  troubled  with 
such  diseases  as  mildew  when  they  have  some  support. 
The  seed  is  drilled  in  on  well  prepared  land  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  As  the  seed  is. much 
larger  than  that  of  the  grains,  it  can  be  sown  more  satisfac- 
torily separately  than  in  a  mixture,  and  the  grain  can  be 
added  by  going  over  the  field  a  second  time.  The  common 
practice,  however,  is  to  sow  the  two  at  One  operation.  The 
use  of  the  grain  drill  is  desirable  in  order  to  get  the  seed 
covered  to  the  proper  depth.  After  the  seed  is  sown,  no 
further  treatment  is  required  until  harveso  time. 

519.  Making  and  Feeding  the  Hay.    Field  peas  should 
be  cut  for  hay  when  the  pods  are  filling  but  before  any  of 
them  are  ripe.     At  this  time  the  grain  with  which  they  are 
sown  should  also  be  in  the  proper  stage  for  hay.    The  crop 
can  be  cut  with  the  ordinary  mower  or  with  a  mower  with 
buncher  attachment.     Curing  in  the  cock  is  preferable  to 
long  curing  in  the  swath,  for  raking  after  the  pods  are  dry 
is  likely  to  result  in  the  loss  of  much  of  the  seed.     The  curing 
of  the  hay  is  not  different  from  that  of  similar  hay  crops. 
The  hay  can  be  fed  to  stock  of  all  kinds.     In  the  San  Luis 
Valley  in  Colorado,  it  is  very  largely  used  in  the  feeding  of 
sheep.     Grain  and  pea  hay  is  excellent  for  dairy  cows  and 
for  young,  growing  stock.    Its  feeding  value  depends  to  some 
extent  on  the  proportion  of  peas  and  of  grain,  but  it  is  richer 
than  grain  hay  alone.     Pea  vines  are  about  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  clover  hay.  .  • 

520.  Other  Uses  of  Field  Peas.     Peas  and  oats  or  peas 
and  barley  make  excellent  pasture  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs, 
particularly  if  the  stock  is  not  turned  in  until  the  plants  have 
made  a  good  growth.     Hogs  and  sheep  will  make  large  gains 
and  there  will  be  little  waste  if  the  crop  is  allowed  to  mature 
before  the  stock  is  pastured  on  it.     This  combination  crop 


THE  FIELD  BEAN  405 

is  sometimes  put  into  the  silo,  and  silage  of  high  feeding  value 
is  produced.  As  a  soiling  crop,  peas  and  grain  have  no 
superior  for  early  feeding  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States.  As  the  plants  make  a  large  volume  of  organic  mat- 
ter rich  in  nitrogen,  they  are  excellent  soil  improvers  when 
turned  under  as  green  manure.  The  grain  may  be  fed  whole 
to  sheep  or  hogs,  or  may  be  ground  into  meal.  For  hogs, 
grinding  is  advisable. 

THE  FIELD  BEAN 

621.  The  white  or  navy  varieties  of  the  common 
garden  bean,  Phaseolus  vulgaris,  are  grown  under  field 
conditions  for  the  production  of  dried  beans  in  some 
localities,  more  particularly  in  Michigan,  New  York, 
Maine,  and  California.  The  usual  method  is  to  plant  in 
rows  from  30  to  36  inches  apart,  after  the  ground  is 
warm  in  the  spring,  and  give  good  cultivation  during 
the  growing  season.  Beans  should  not  be  cultivated 
when  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  for  they 
are  much  more  likely  to  become  diseased  if  disturbed  when 
damp.  The  rate  of  seeding  depends  on  the  size  of  the  beans, 
Yi  bushel  to  the  acre  being  sufficient  for  the  navy  or  pea 
beans,  while  as  much  as  a  bushel  of  some  of  the  larger  kinds 
is  required. 

When  the  beans  are  ripe,  they  are  harvested  with  the 
bean  harvester,  an  implement  which  runs  just  beneath  the 
surface  and  cuts  the  stems  and  roots,  so  that  the  plants  may 
be  gathered  readily,  free  from  dirt  and  roots.  If  the  vines 
are  practically  dead  when  harvested,  they  may  be  placed  at 
once  in  well-built  cocks,  but  if  there  are  some  green  pods  and 
leaves,  they  should  be  dried  for  a  few  hours  before  bunching. 
These  cocks  are  usually  built  around  a  pole  about  5  feet  high, 
sharpened  at  both  ends.  One  end  is  stuck  firmly  in  the 


406 


FIELD  CROPS 


ground,  and  a  bunch  of  grass  or  weeds  is  fastened  to  the 
other  after  the  cock  is  completed,  to  serve  as  protection  from 
rains.  As  soon  as  the  vines  are  dry,  they  should  be  removed 
carefully  to  the  barn,  where  the  beans  may  be  flailed  or 
thrashed  out.  The  modern  bean  thrasher  removes  the  beans 
much  more  quickly  and  cheaply  than  the  flail.  After  the 
beans  are  thrashed,  they  should  be  cleaned  and  graded,  and 
the  good  beans  placed  in  sacks  for  marketing.  The  cull 
/  beans  may  then  be  used  as  feed  for  stock, 

while  the  marketable  beans  are  an  impor- 
tant article  of  human  diet. 

SWEET  CLOVER 

522.  Description.  The  white  .sweet 
clover,  Melilotus  alba,  is  a  common  road- 
side plant  quite  generally  over  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  is 
widely  naturalized  in  America.  It  closely 
resembles  alfalfa  in  habit  of  growth,  but  is 
biennial,  and  the  flowers  are  small,  numer- 
ous, and  produced  in  long  spikes. 

623.  Importance.  Sweet  clover  is  not 
generally  cultivated,  though  in  some  sec- 
sweet  tions  of  the  South  it  is  grown  as  a  forage 
crop  and  soil  renovator.  Its  principal  use 
is  for  the  latter  purpose,  as  stock  do  not  usually  eat  it 
readily,  and  unless  cut  early  for  hay  the  stems  are  coarse 
and  woody.  The  feeding  value  of  sweet  clover  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  alfalfa,  but  its  lack  of  palatability 
makes  it  much  less  valuable  in  actual  practice.  Soils  on 
which  sweet  clover  thrives  are  usually  adapted  to  alfalfa, 
and  as  the  same  bacterium  lives  on  the  roots  of  both 
plants,  land  on  which  sweet  clover  grows  ordinarily  does 


Fig.  126. 
clover. 


THE  BUR  CLOVERS  407 

not  require  inoculation  to  produce  alfalfa.  Sweet  clover, 
however,  will  probably  grow  on  soils  and  in  climates  where 
alfalfa  will  not  succeed. 

524.  Culture.  When  it  is  desired  to  grow  sweet  clover  on 
poor  soil  to  improve  it,  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring  at  the 
rate  of  about  15  pounds  to  the  acre,  and  harrowed  in.  In  the 
South,  it  can  be  sown  after  an  early  crop  is  harvested.  If  the 
plants  are  plowed  under  the  following  spring  before  blossom- 
ing, there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  eradicating  it,  but  if  it  is  al- 
lowed to  seed  it  is  likely  to  give  trouble.  The  seed  is  quite 
similar  to  that  of  alfalfa,  and  sometimes  it  is  used  as  an  adul- 
terant. 

THE  BUR  CLOVERS 

525.  The  bur  clovers  are  closely  related  to  alfalfa,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  genus,  Medicago,  but  are  annual  instead  of 
perennial.  They  are  low-growing  plants  with  yellow  flowers 
and  prickly  pods.  The  common  species  are  Medicago  macu- 
lata  or  spotted  medic,  and  Medicago  denticulata  or  toothed 
medic.  Both  species  grow  in  the  South,  though  the  spotted 
medic  is  more  common.  The  toothed  medic  is  grown  in 
California. 

526.  Use  as  Winter  Pasture.  A  common  practice  in  the 
South  is  to  sow  bur  clover  on  Bermuda  grass  pasture  in  the 
fall.  About  the  time  the  Bermuda  grass  is  killed  by  frost, 
the  bur  clover  begins  to  grow;  in  mild  seasons  it  grows 
throughout  the  winter.  It  furnishes  good  pasture  during  the 
late  fall  and  early  spring  months,  and  if  allowed  to  produce 
seed,  will  reseed  itself  and  appear  again  the  following  fall. 
In  this  way,  a  permanent  pasture  is  assured.  As  the  bur 
clover  adds  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  the  growth  becomes  heavier 
from  year  to  year. 


408  FIELD  CROPS 

527.  Use  as  Green  Manure.  Bur  clover  is  also  sown  in 
cotton  or  other  cultivated  fields  in  the  fall  and  plowed  under 
the  following  spring  as  a  green  manure  crop.  About  15 
pounds  of  clean  seed  or  40  to  60  pounds  of  seed  in  the  bur  is 
sown  to  the  acre.  If  it  is  not  plowed  under  the  following 
spring  till  seed  is  produced,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  reseed 
it  in  the  fall. 

JAPAN  CLOVER 

628.  Japan  clover,  or  lespedeza,  Lespedeza  striata,  is  a 
native  of  Japan  which  is  now  commonly  found  on  sandy  soils 
from  Virginia  to  Texas.  It  is  not  usually  sown,  but,  like  blue 
grass  and  white  clover  in  the  regions  farther  north,  it  comes 
in  and  fills  up  the  waste  places.  While  the  plant  ordinarily 
grows  only  a  few  inches  high,  on  good  soil  it  reaches  a  height 
of  from  15  to  18  inches,  and  is  a  promising  hay  plant.  Its 
chief  value  is  as  a  gatherer  of  nitrogen  on  poor  soil,  and  as  a 
pasture  crop.  It  is  an  excellent  addition  to  Bermuda  pas- 
tures, for  it  grows  well  with  Bermuda  or  other  grasses.  As  it 
soon  starts  into  growth  again  when  grazed  off,  the  quantity 
of  feed  it  will  produce  during  a  season  is  surprising.  In 
pastures  it  will  usually  reseed  itself.  On  richer  lands  where 
it  is  thick  and  tall  enough  to  be  cut  for  hay,  some  provision 
should  be  made  for  reseeding.  This  may  be  done  by  leaving 
uncut  strips  across  the  field  or  by  cutting  the  first  crop  early 
enough  to  allow  the  second  growth  to  mature  seed  before 
frost. 

*  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  sow  lespedeza  seed  in  pas- 
tures. Where  it  is  desired  to  introduce  this  plant  or  to  sow 
it  on  cultivated  land  for  hay  or  as  a  renovating  crop,  15  to  25 
pounds  of  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  early  spring  and  harrow- 
ed in.  Most  of  the  seed  is  now  produced  in  Louisiana  and 
Mississippi. 


THE  VETCHES  409 

THE  VETCHES 

529.  Description.     Though  several  species  of  vetch  are 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  the  most  common  is 
the  winter  or  hairy  vetch,  Vicia  villosa.    This  is  sown  in  the 
late  summer  or  early  fall  as  a  cover  crop  in  orchards,  or  in 
combination  with  fall  grain  as  a  forage  crop  for  hay  or  for 
soiling.     The  vetch  plant  produces  a  trailing  vine  several  feet 
in  length,  with  numerous  pinnate  leaves  consisting  of  eight  to 
fourteen  small  leaflets.     The  bluish-purple  flowers  are  pro- 
duced in  racemes  in  the  axils    of 

the  leaves.  The  pods  are  straight, 
about  1^2  inches  long,  and  contain 
several  brown  or.  black  seeds. 

530.  Culture  and  Uses.    When 
sown  for  hay  or  as  a  winter  cover 
crop  and  soil  improver,  from  1  to 
\y%  bushels  of  vetch  seed  are  re- 
quired for  an  acre.    Oats  or  beard- 
less wheat  are  good  grains  to  grow 
with   vetch   for   hay,    while   as    a 
cover  crop  or  green  manure  there 
is  nothing  better  than  rye.    The 

Fig.  127.   Hairy  vetch. 

time  to  cut  for  hay  depends  more 

on  the  grain  than  on  the  vetch,  for  it  continues  to  grow 
and  produce  seeds  over  a  considerable  period.  Vetch  is 
sometimes  sown  in  the  fall  on  Johnson  grass  sod  and  cut 
the  following  summer  for  hay.  By  the  time  the  Johnson 
grass  is  ready  to  cut  the  vetch  will  have  reseeded  itself 
sufficiently  to  produce  another  crop  the  following  fall. 

The  greatest  usefulness  of  winter  vetch  is  in  the  South  as 
a  cover  crop  and  soil  improver  on  poor  lands,  though  its  best 
growth  is  on  fertile  soils.  In  the  Central  and  Northern 


410 


FIELD  CROPS 


states  it  must  be  sown  in  late  summer  or  early  fall  to  prevent 
winter-killing.  As  cultivation  of  orchards  generally  stops 
about  that  time,  this  plant  works  in  well  as  a  cover  crop  to 
add  nitrogen.  For  the  best  growth  of  the  orchard,  it  should 
be  plowed  under  early  the  following  spring,  for  if  left  to  pro- 
duce seed  it  will  take  moisture  and  plant  food  from  the  trees. 

THE  VELVET  BEAN 

531.  The  velvet  bean,  Mucuna  utilis,  is  a  semitropical 
plant  which  thrives  along  the  Gulf  Coast  and  in  Florida. 

There  it  is  an  im- 
portant forage  plant 
and  soil  renovator, 
since  it  makes  a 
very  heavy  growth 
and  produces  numer- 
ous nitrogen-gather- 
ing tubercles.  The 
vines  often  grow  to 
a  length  of  30  feet  or 
more.  The  flowers 
are  in  clusters,  pur- 
ple in  color,  and  are 
followed  by  short 
pods  which  are  covered  with  black  fuzz  or  down.  Each  pod 
contains  several  mottled  white  and  brown  seeds,  about 
the  size  of  a  common  garden  bean.  The  greatest  value  of 
the  velvet  bean  is  as  a  producer  of  vegetable  matter  rich 
in  nitrogen.  The  long,  tangled  vines  make  it  rather  diffi- 
cult to  harvest  for  forage.  It  will  produce  good  sized  vines 
as  far  north  as  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  but  does  not  pro- 
duce seed  except  in  the  Gulf  states. 


Fig.    128.     Velvet   bean     leaves,     flowers,    and 
green  and  mature  t>ods. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  411 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

The  pupils  should  become  familiar  with  as  many  of  the  plants 
discussed  in  this  chapter  as  possible.  Most  of  them  can  be  grown  to  at 
least  a  partial  state  of  maturity  almost  anywhere  in  the  United  States, 
and  at  least  a  few  plants  of  each  (with  the  possible  exceptions  of  the 
velvet  bean  and  bur  clover  in  the  North)  may  well  be  grown  on  the 
school  farm.  They  can  be  utilized  as  illustrative  material  in  the  fresh 
state  in  the  field  or  dried  and  used  in  the  laboratory  at  any  season  of 
the  year.  For  growing  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States, 
early  varieties  of  cowpeas  like  New  Era  and  of  soy  beans  like  Ito  San 
should  be  selected. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 

Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America. 

Jones'  The  Peanut  Plant. 

Roper's  The  Peanut  and  Its  Culture. 

Sevey's  Peas  and  Pea  Culture. 

Shaw's  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them. 

Shaw's  Forage  Crops. 

Voorhees'  Forage  Crops. 

Wing's  Meadows  and  Pastures. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

224,  Canadian  Field  Peas. 

278,  Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring 

289,  Beans. 

309,  pp.  15-19,  Cowpeas  and  Soy  Beans. 

315,  Legume  Inoculation. 

318,  Cowpeas. 

372,  Soy  Beans. 

431,  Peanuts. 

441,  Lespedeza. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
ROOT  CROPS 

632.  Introduction.  For  convenience,  all  those  forage 
crops  which  are  not  included  among  the  grasses  and  legumes 
are  grouped  under  the  class  name  of  root  crops,  though  not 
all  are  grown  for  their  roots.  Practically  all  these  plants  are 
biennials  which  during  their  first  season's  growth  store  up 
food  in  their  roots  or  stems  to  supply  nourishment  to  the 
fruiting  stem  the  following  season.  Such  plants  as  beets, 
mangels,  turnips,  rutabagas  and  carrots  are  grown  for  their 
fleshy  roots,  which  are  really  a  thickening  of  the  base  of  the 
stem  and  the  top  of  the  taproot.  The  head  of  cabbage  is 
a  mass  of  leaves  closely  folded  together,  while  kohlrabi  is  an 
enlargement  of  the  stem  rather  than  of  the  root.  Rape  and 
kale  are  closely  related  to  the  cabbage,  but  do  not  produce 
heads.  The  area  in  "root  forage"  for  the  entire  United 
States  in  1909  was  less  than  19,000  acres,  with  a  total  pro- 
duction of  254,500  tons.  This  includes  only  mangels,  turnips 
rutabagas  and  carrots.  These  root  crops  are  produced  most 
largely  in  Maine,  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, Washington,  and  Oregon. 

THE  BEET 

533.  Classes.  The  beet,  Beta  vulgaris,  has  been  de- 
veloped into  four  distinct  types,  in  each  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties.  These  are  (1)  the  chard,  grown  for  its 
thick  leaf  stalks,  which  are  used  as  greens;  (2)  the  garden 
beet,  grown  for  its  edible  roots;  (3)  the  sugar  beet,  grown  for 
the  production  of  sugar;  and  (4)  the  mangel  or  mangel- 


THE  CULTURE  OF  MANGELS  413 

wurzel,  for  feeding  to  stock.  We  are  here  concerned  only 
with  the  latter  type.  The  sugar  beet  will  be  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  sugar  plants. 

534.  The  Mangel  and  the  Sugar  Beet.    The  mangel 
differs  from  the  sugar  beet  in  many  characters.     The  root 
of  the  sugar  beet  is  fairly  uniform  in  shape,  being  largest 
near  the  crown  and  tapering  gradually  to  a  long  tap  root, 
while  that  of  the  mangel  is  of  various  shapes  in  the  many 
varieties.    The  flesh  of  the  sugar  beet  is  white,  while  that  of 
the  mangel  is  usually  reddish  or  yellow.     The  skin  of  the 
sugar  beet  is  also  white;  the  mangel  may  be  red,  white,  gold- 
en, purplish,  or  even  black.    The  sugar  beet  grows  almost 
entirely  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  while  in  many 
varieties  of  mangel  half  or  more  of  the  root  is  above  the  sur- 
face, making  it  much  easier  to  harvest.    Well-grown  sugar 
beets  weigh  from  1  to  1^  pounds;  mangels  should  weigh 
from  4  to  6  pounds.     The  sugar  beet  contains  about  20  per 
cent  of  solids,  of  which  about  four-fifths  is  sugar;  the  mangel 
contains  only  about  12  per  cent  of  solids  and  not  more  than 
6  per  cent  of  sugar. 

535.  The  Soil  and  Its  Preparation.    The  best  soil  for 
beets  is  a  rich  loam  or  sandy  loam.     The  roots  do  not  develop 
well  in  clay  soils  and  are  more  difficult  to  harvest,  while  very 
sandy  soils  do  not  retain  sufficient  moisture.     Conditions 
are  usually  more  favorable  in  the  Northern  states  than  else- 
where for  the  growth  of  mangels.     Good  preparation  is 
essential  to  the  profitable  growth  of  the  crop.     The  seeds  are 
somewhat  slow  to  germinate  and  the  plants  grow  slowly  at 
first,  so  that  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  keep  down 
weeds.    This  can  best  be  done  by  planning  a  rotation  which 
contains  crops  which  aid  in  the  control  of  these  pests.     One 
which  has  been  successfully  used  in  some  sections  consists  of 
(1)  corn,  (2)  barley,  and  (3)  mangels  or  some  other  root  crop. 


414 


FIELD  CROPS 


The  land  is  manured  for  the  corn ;  this  crop  may  be  fed  off  by 
hogs  if  desired,  as  practically  all  of  it  will  then  be  returned  to 
the  land.  The  cultivation  of  the  corn  crop  and  the  rapid 
growth  and  early  maturity  of  the  barley  all  aid  in  subduing 
weeds.  After  the  barley  is  harvested,  the  land  is  plowed  and 
then  harrowed  at  intervals  during  the  fall  to  kill  any  weeds 
that  appear.  This  insures  the  easy  preparation  of  a  good 
seed  bed  free  from  weeds  for  the  beets  the  following  spring. 


Fig.  129.     Maneels    nroduoe  a  heavy  yield  to  the  acre  and  supply  a  large 
quantity  of  succulent  feed  for  dairy  cows  and  other  stock. 

The  usual  preparation  for  beets,  whether  or  not  the  rota- 
tion just  given  is  followed,  is  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall  and 
disk  it  deeply  and  thoroughly  in  the  spring.  From  four  to 
six  harrowings  and  diskings  are  usually  required  to  put  it  in 
proper  condition  for  seeding.  The  land  should  be  fertile;  if 
it  has  not  been  manured  for  a  previous  crop,  the  application 
of  a  good  supply  of  well-rotted  manure  is  beneficial.  Fresh 


THE  CULTURE  OF  MANGELS  415 

manure  should  not  be  used,  as  it  is  likely  to  contain  many 
weed  seeds. 

536.  Seeding.    The   seed  of  the   beet  is   produced  in 
" balls, "  or  "bolts,"  which  contain  from  one  to  five  seeds. 
For  this  reason,  it  is  impossible  to  regulate  the  rate  of  seeding 
perfectly,  and  hand  thinning  must  be  practiced  to  obtain  a 
good  stand.    The  seed  may  be  sown  with  a  one-row  drill, 
though  where  roots  are  grown  in  any  quantity  the  use  of  a 
drill  which  sows  several  rows  at  a  time  is  desirable.     Mangels 
are  usually  planted  in  rows  ranging  from  28  to  36  inches 
apart;  the  rate  of  seeding  is  from  6  to  8  pounds  to  the  acre. 
The  seed  is  covered  about  1  inch  deep,  or  deeper  if  necessary 
to  insure  moisture  for  germination.     Seeding  should  be  done 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  good  condition,  which  is  about  the 
first  of  May  in  the  Northern  states,  though  on  heavy  soils  it 
may  have  to  be  delayed  till  about  May  20. 

537.  Cultivation.    As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  followed, 
the  land  should  be  cultivated.     The  best  type  of  cultivator 
is  a  four-row  one  with  knives  that  cut  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  soil.     Cultivation  should  be  repeated  every  eight  or 
ten  days  till  the  tops  meet  between  the  rows.     In  order  to 
obtain  a  perfect  stand  and  prevent  crowding,  the  plants  must 
be  thinned  to  the  proper  distance  as  soon  as  they  are  large 
enough,  which  is  about  the  time  the  fourth  or  fifth  leaf  is 
produced.    They  should  first  be  "bunched,"  cutting  out  all 
the  plants  in  the  rows  with  a  hoe  except  small  bunches  1  or 
2  inches  wide  and  10  or  12  inches  apart.    After  the  plants 
have  recovered  somewhat  from  the  ' '  bunching, ' '  but  while 
they  are  still  small,  they  are  thinned  by  hand,  all  but  the 
largest  plant  in  each  bunch  being  removed.     This  leaves  the 
single  plants  about  12  inches  apart  in  the  row.    The  bunch- 
ing and  thinning  is  slow  and  expensive  work,  and  it  is  largely 
because  of  it  that  root  crops  are  not  more  popular  among 


416  FIELD  CROPS 

American  farmers.  It  is  more  necessary  for  sugar  beets  than 
for  other  root  crops,  as  uniformity  is  more  important  in  that 
crop,  and  the  seed  is  sown  thicker  to  insure  a  full  stand. 
Large  yields  being  essential  to  the  profitable  production  of 
root  crops  of  all  kinds,  much  depends  on  the  preparation  of 
the  soil,  its  freedom  from  weeds,  and  the  care  which  is  given. 

538.  Harvesting.  Mangels  should  be  harvested  as  soon 
as  growth  stops  in  the  fall,  which  is  when  the  outer  leaves 
begin  to  wither.  They  should  not  be  exposed  to  severe 
frosts,  though  the  first  light  frosts  will  not  injure  them.  The 
roots  should  be  removed  from  the  ground  without  breaking 
or  bruising  them,  for  bruised  roots  soon  decay.  If  necessary, 
they  may  be  loosened  by  plowing  a  furrow  close  beside  the 
row,  or  by  a  beet  digger  run  under  the  row,  but  mangels  can 
usually  be  pulled  easily  by  hand.  The  tops  are  then  twisted 
or  cut  off  and  the  beets  thrown  into  piles  from  which  they  are 
loaded  into  wagons  and  hauled  to  the  root  cellar  or  pit  for 
storing.  The  tops  may  be  thrown  into  windrows  for  curing, 
as  they  make  excellent  feed  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  If 
they  are  not  desired  for  feeding,  they  should  be  scattered 
over  the  field  and  plowed  under  for  fertilizer. 

639.  Storing.  Mangels  and  other  roots  should  be  stored 
as  soon  as  harvested.  For  this  purpose,  a  root  cellar  is  de- 
sirable, though  not  absolutely  necessary.  Good  ventilation, 
freedom  from  dampness,  and  a  temperature  just  above  the 
freezing  point  give  the  best  conditions  for  storing.  If  a 
cellar  is  not  available,  the  roots  may  be  placed  in  a  pit  and 
covered  with  alternate  layers  of  straw  and  earth,  increasing 
the  depth  of  covering  as  the  weather  becomes  colder. 

040.  Uses.  Mangels  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  corn 
and  corn  silage  in  the  North  and  in  high  altitudes  where  the 
weather  is  too  cool  for  that  crop  to  succeed.  The  dry  matter 
in  mangels  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  the  dry  matter 


CARROTS 


417 


in  grain  and  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  in  silage.  It  is 
palatable  and  nutritious,  and  an  unusually  high  proportion 
of  it  is  digestible.  Mangels  are  most  commonly  fed  to 
dairy  cattle,  though  they  may  be  fed  to  sheep  and  hogs  if 
desired.  As  from  10  to  15  tons  may  readily  be  produced  to 
the  acre,  the  farmers  in  the  Northern  states  can  well  afford 
to  raise  more  mangels  and 
other  root  crops. 

CARROTS 

541.  Description.       The 

carrot,  Daucus  carota,  has 
finely-divided  leaves,  flowers 
and  seeds  in  a  dense  umbel, 
and  roots  of  various  shapes 
and  colors.  Most  varieties 
taper  from  the  crown  to  the 
tap-root,  though  some  are 
cylindrical  for  most  of  their 
length,  while  others  are 
short  and  thick.  The  color 
of  the  flesh  and  skin  may  be 
white,  yellow,  orange,  or  red. 
Carrots  are  grown  in  only 
a  limited  way  for  stock 
feeding,  mostly  for  horses. 
Their  feeding  value  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  mangels. 

542.  Culture.    Carrots  grow  best  in  a  deep  sandy  loam. 
The  seed  bed  should  be  well  prepared  and  free  from  weeds, 
as  germination  and  early  growth  are  slow.  The  rows  should 
be  from  24  to  30  inches  apart  and  the  plants  about  3  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.     From  4  to  6  pounds  of  seed  are  required 
to  sow  an  acre.    The  methods  of  planting,  thinning,  cultiva- 

16 


Fig.  130.  Carrots  for  stock  feeding. 


418  FIELD  CROPS 

ting  and  harvesting  are  not  different  from  those  already  given 
for  mangels.  Carrots  yield  from  10  to  25  tons  of  roots  and 
3  or  4  tons  of  tops  to  the  acre. 

TURNIPS  AND  RUTABAGAS 

543.  Description.  The  turnip  and  the  rutabaga  are 
closely  related  plants  of  the  genus  Brassica,  which  also  in- 
cludes mustard,  rape,  and  several  of  our  garden  vegetables. 
The  rutabaga  is  Brassica  campestris;  the  turnip,  Brassica 
rapa.  The  roots  of  turnips  and  rutabagas  vary  from  the 
flattened  form  of  the  common  turnip  to  the  long,  cylindrical 
"cowhorn"  type  in  shape,  and  from  white  to  yellow,  purple, 
and  red  in  color.  The  flesh  is  white  or  yellow;  it  is  usually 
white  in  turnips  and  yellow  in  rutabagas.  Turnips  mature 
more  quickly,  while  rutabagas  have  a  higher  feeding  value 
and  keep  better. 

644.  Culture.     Rutabagas  and  turnips  grow  best  in   a 
cool,  moist  climate  and  in  a  sandy  loam  soil.     The  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil,  seeding,  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  storing 
are  not  different  from  the  treatment  which  has  been  recom- 
mended for  mangels.     From  2  to  3  pounds  of  turnip  and  4 
to  5  pounds  of  rutabaga  seed  are  required  to  the  acre.     As 
turnips  make  their  growth  in  from  two  to  three  months,  they 
may  be  sown  in  the  late  summer  and  yet  mature  a  crop 
before  frost.     They  grow  best  in  cool  weather,  and  for  fall 
and  winter  use  should  not  be  sown  till  the  latter  part  of  July. 
Rutabagas,  on  the  other  hand,  require  from  four  to  six 
months  to  reach  maturity,  and  must  be  sown  in  May  or  June. 

645.  Uses.    Turnips  and  rutabagas  are  largely  used  in 
England  for  feeding  to  stock,  and  to  some  extent  in  Canada, 
but  they  are  seldom  grown  for  this  purpose  in  the  United 
States.    They  are  equal  in  feeding  value  to  mangels  and 
other  root  crops,  and  the  grain  ration  may  be  materially  re- 


CABBAGE  AND  KOHLRABI  419 

duced  when  they  are  used.  Rutabagas  are  especially  good 
for  feeding  to  pigs.  As  turnips  do  not  keep  well,  they  should 
be  fed  in  the  early  fall;  rutabagas  may  be  kept  through  the 
winter  without  much  difficulty.  When  all  the  root  crops 
are  grown,  turnips  are  usually  fed  first,  being  either  pas- 
tured off  or  fed  as  soon  as  they  are  harvested;  rutabagas 
are  then  used  till  about  January  1,  after  which  mangels  are 
substituted.  Rutabagas  may  be  fed  throughout  the  winter 
if  desired. 

CABBAGE  AND  KOHLRABI 

546.  Culture  and  Uses.  Cabbage  and  kohlrabi  are  dif- 
ferent forms  of  the  same  original  plant,  Brassica  oleracea. 
In  cabbage,  the  food  material  is  stored  in  the  leaves,  which 
form  a  compact  head,  while  in  kohlrabi  it  is  stored  in  an  en- 
largement of  the  stem,  which  looks  like  a  rutabaga  above 
ground.  Cabbage  is  commonly  grown  as  a  garden  vegetable, 
but  is  used  to  some  extent  for  feeding  to  stock,  while  kohlrabi 
is  not  extensively  grown  in  America  for  any  purpose.  Cab- 
bage produces  a  large  yield  of  succulent  feed,  which  is  best 
used  by  feeding  direct  from  the  field  in  the  fall.  Kohlrabi  is 
said  to  be  more  drouth-resistant  and  to  grow  in  warmer  cli- 
mates than  the  rutabaga;  it  is  about  equal  to  that  crop  in 
feeding  value.  It  should  be  sown  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
rutabaga  and  the  plants  thinned  to  about  the  same  distance 
apart.  Cabbage  may  be  sown  in  the  garden  early  in  the 
spring  and  transplanted  to  the  field  in  June  by  hand  or  with 
a  transplanting  machine,  or  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  hills 
about  24  inches  apart,  dropping  three  or  four  seeds  in  the  hill 
and  later  thinning  to  a  single  plant.  The  rows  should  be 
about  3  feet  apart  and  the  plants  about  24  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  Cultivation  is  the  same  as  for  other  crops  discussed  in 
this  chapter. 


420  FIELD  CROPS 

RAPE  AND  KALE 

547.  Description.     Rape,   Brassica   napus,   is   a   quick- 
growing,  leafy  plant  with  stems  from  2  to  4  feet  tall.     The 
leaves  grow  along  the  stem  instead  of  from  the  crown  as  in 
many  of  the  other  plants  of  this  genus.     The  variety  which 
is  commonly  grown  in  this  country  is  the  Dwarf  Essex,  a 
biennial  type  which  produces  seed  only  where  the  plants  will 
survive  the  winter.    Where  it  does  produce  seed,  however, 
the  yield  is  heavy,  so  that  the  seed  is  cheap,  and  as  only  3  to 
5  pounds  are  required  to  the  acre,  the  expense  of  seeding  is 
small.     Kale,  or  headless  cabbage,  one  of  the  numerous 
forms  of  Brassica  oleracea,  grows  in  much  the  same  form  as 
rape,  but  has  larger  leaves  and  produces  heavier  yields  of 
forage.     It  is  grown  as  a  forage  crop  only  in  the  mild  climate 
of  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington. 

548.  Culture.     Rape  grows  best  on  rich,  moist  loam  soils. 
Its  growth  is  rapid,  hence  it  is  often  sown  broadcast,  as  it  is 
able  to  compete  successfully  with  weeds.     Larger  yields  are 
obtained,  however,  if  it  is  sown  in  drills  from  28  to  36  inches 
apart  and  given  frequent  cultivation  while  the  plants  are 
small.    As  the  plant  is  a  gross  feeder,  it  can  use  large  quan- 
tities of  stable  manure  or  other  fertilizers.     The  yields  from 
poor  soil  are  apt  to  be  disappointing,  but  the  quantity  of 
forage  produced  on  rich  soil  is  remarkable.     Rape  may  be 
sown  alone  at  any  time  during  the  spring  or  early  summer 
months,  or  with  oats  or  other  grain  in  the  spring.    When 
sown  with  grain,  not  more  than  1  or  2  pounds  of  rape  seed  to 
the  acre  should  be  used.     The  rape  usually  grows  slowly  till 
the  grain  crop  is  removed,  when  it  starts  into  rapid  growth 
and  supplies  abundant  forage.     In  wet  seasons  on  rich  soil, 
it  sometimes  makes  such  rapid  growth  that  much  of  it  is 
harvested  in  the  butts  of  the  grain  bundles,  thus  interfering 


RAPE  AND  KALE  421 

with  their  proper  curing.  Sowing  the  rape  a  couple  of  weeks 
later  than  the  grain  usually  avoids  this  trouble,  while  the 
rape  succeeds  quite  as  well. 

549.  Uses.  It  is  customary  to  pasture  rape,  when  it  is 
sown  either  alone  or  with  a  grain  crop.  Occasionally,  it  is 
cut  for  soiling,  but  it  is  never  cured  into  dry  fodder.  It  is 
most  largely  used  as  pasture  for  hogs  and  sheep.  Better 
results  are  obtained  if  stock  are  pastured  on  only  a  small  area 
at  a  time,  using  movable  fences  or  hurdles  and  changing  the 
animals  to  different  areas  as  necessary.  Otherwise,  much  of 
the  feed  is  wasted  by  the  animals  tramping  it  into  the  soil. 
Rape  is  a  succulent,  palatable  feed,  very  similar  in  composi- 
tion to  the  best  perennial  pasture  crops,  and  as  it  produces  a 
large  quantity  of  forage  in  a  short  time,  it  should  be  more 
extensively  used.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  bloating 
when  cattle  or  sheep  are  first  turned  on  it.  When  sown  with 
grain  crops  and  pastured  after  the  grain  is  harvested,  sheep 
will  put  on  flesh  rapidly,  as  they  get  the  benefit  of  the  glean- 
ings as  well  as  the  rape. 

Kale  is  used  quite  extensively  as  a  fall  and  winter  soiling 
crop  for  dairy  cows  and  other  stock  in  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton west  of  the  Cascade  Range.  As  the  winters  are  mild, 
it  may  be  cut  at  any  time  from  October  to  April. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Allen's  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  and  Allied  Vegetables. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 

Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 

Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America. 

Shaw's  Forage  Crops. 

Shaw's  Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo. 

Voorhees'  Forage  Crops. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

164,  Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop. 

309,  pp.  7-15,  Root  Crops. 


PART  IV— MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS 


CHAPTER  XXII 
ROOT  AND  TUBER  FOOD  CROPS 

550.  Introduction.    The  principal  root  and  tuber  food- 
crops  of  the  United  States  are  the  common  Irish  or  white 
potato  and  the  sweet  potato.    The  Irish  potato,  which  is 
used  as  food  and  in  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  alcohol, 
is  a  tuber,  or  a  thickened  underground  stem.     Several  of 
these  are  produced  on  each  plant  a  little  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground;  they  develop  from   offshoots  of  the  main  stem. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  portion  of  the  sweet  potato  which  is 
used  as  food  is  a  thickened  true  root.     The  common  or 
white  potato  is  most  largely  grown  in  the  North,  while  the 
culture  of  the  sweet  potato  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the 
South. 

THE  POTATO 

551.  Origin  and  History.    The  common  white   or  Irish 
potato,  Solanum  tuber osum,  is  a  native  of  the  mountain  val- 
leys of  Peru  and  Chili.    Some  investigators  believe  that  it 
has  been  grown  in  these  countries  for  two  thousand  years, 
but  this  is  merely  a  supposition.     De  la  Vega  found  the  Peru- 
vians cultivating  potatoes  in  1542,  and  sent  some  of  the  tubers 
to   Europe.     Several   later   importations   were  made  into 
Spain,  and  from  these  the  growth  of  potatoes  has  spread  until 
now  practically  all  of  the  countries  of  the  world  grow  this  crop 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent.    The  potato  was  introduced  into 
Ireland  in  1586,  and  soon  became  an  important  article  of 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  POTATO  423 

food,  as  indicated  by  the  common  name  "Irish"  potato.  It 
was  probably  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  early 
Spanish  settlers. 

552.  Botanical  Characteristics.     The  potato  is  a  fibrous- 
rooted  plant  which  is  perennial  by  means  of  the  tubers  it 
produces.     It  is  for  these  tubers  that  it  is  grown,  and  by 
means  of  them  that  it  is  propagated.     As  the  tubers  will  not 
stand  freezing,  they  are  stored  over  winter,  and  thus  the 
potato  is  grown  as  an  annual.    The  plants  grow  from  2  to  4 
or  5  feet  high;  the  stems  are  smooth  and  somewhat  angular. 
When  the  plant  reaches  its  maximum  length  it  is  usually  re- 
cumbent, with  the  leaves  and  branches  stretching  up  from  1 
to  3  feet.     The  compound  leaves  vary  with  the  different  va- 
rieties and  stages  of  growth.    The  leaflets  are  generally  ovate. 

The  white  or  purple  flowers  appear  in  terminal  clusters. 
They  are  about  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  five-parted,  bell- 
shaped  corolla.  Each  flower  has  five  stamens  and  a  two- 
celled  pistil  which  occasionally  matures  seed.  When  seed  is 
matured,  it  is  often  unlike  the  parent  plant,  because  the 
flowers  are  cross-fertilized.  Most  of  the  new  varieties  of 
potatoes  are  obtained  by  planting  this  seed  and  making  selec- 
tions from  a  large  number  of  seedlings,  most  of  which  are 
practically  useless.  Potatoes  are  almost  universally  repro- 
duced from  tubers,  and  when  one  ordinarily  speaks  of  seed 
potatoes  he  has  reference  to  the  tubers  and  not  to  the  true 
seed.  Numerous  slight  indentations  or  "eyes"  are  to  be 
found  on  the  surface  of  the  tubers.  These  are  most  numer- 
ous at  the  "seed"  end,  while  there  are  comparatively  few  at 
the  "stem"  end  where  the  tuber  was  attached  to  the  parent 
plant.  It  is  from  the  buds  in  these  eyes  that  new  plants  are 
produced -when  the  tubers  or  portions  of  them  are  planted. 

553.  Relationships.    There  are  about  nine  hundred  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Solanum,  to  which  the  potato  belongs,  but 


424  FIELD  CROPS 

only  a  few  are  cultivated  plants.  The  tomato  and  nightshade 
belong  to  this  genus,  and  tobacco  belongs  to  the  same  family. 
Potatoes  and  tomatoes  are  so  closely  related  that  branches 
of  one  may  be  grafted  upon  the  other. 

554.  Varieties.    There  is  a  very  large  number  of  different 
varieties  of  potatoes.     Some  are  distinct  types,  but  many  of 
them  are  simply  new  names    given  by  seedsmen    to  old 
standard  varieties,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  their  sale. 
While  the  varietal  characteristics  are  quite  pronounced,  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  distinguish  even  between  well-known 
kinds,  because  a  variety  will  vary  greatly  if  grown  under 
different  soil  conditions,  and  especially  if  grown  and  selected 
by  different  individuals.     Some  of  the  desirable  character- 
istics in  potatoes  are  good  yield  and  quality,  medium  size, 
smoothness,  and  shallow  eyes. 

There  are  many  different  ways  of  classifying  potatoes. 
They  may  be  divided  into  early  and  late,  white  and  red, 
smooth  and  rough,  deep  and  shallow-eyed,  or  as  long,  flat, 
or  round,  etc.  The  most  common  classification,  however, 
is  early  and  late.  Some  of  the  well-known  early  varieties 
of  potatoes  are  Early  Ohio,  Bliss  Triumph,  and  Early  Rose. 
These  potatoes  will  usually  produce  a  crop  in  from  70  to  100 
days  from  planting.  Some  of  the  more  common  and  gener- 
ally distributed  late  varieties  are  Rural  New  Yorker,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  Carman  No.  3,  and  Burbank.  These  varie- 
ties, as  a  rule,  yield  more  than  the  early  varieties.  They 
require  from  100  to  130  days  in  which  to  mature  a  crop. 

555.  World  Production.    During  the  five  years,  1905- 
1909,  the  average  annual  production  of  potatoes  in  the  world 
was  about  5,000,000,000  bushels.    This  places  potatoes  in 
the  lead  of  all  other  crops  in  the  total  number  of  bushels 
produced.    The  average  production  of  wheat,  corn,  and  oats 
for  the  same  years  was  approximately  4,000,000,000  bushels 


WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  POTATOES  425 

each.  Germany  leads  the  world  in  total  production  of  pota- 
toes as  well  as  in  the  average  yield  per  acre.  The  six  leading 
countries  and  their  average  annual  production  for  1905-1909 
are  as  follows:  Germany,  1,689,000,000  bushels;  European 
Russia,  1,048,000,000  bushels;  Austria-Hungary,  709,000,000 
bushels;  France,  529,000,000  bushels;  United  States, 
307,000,000  bushels;  and  the  United  Kingdom,  242,000,000 
bushels.  The  immense  total  world  production  indicates  the 
very  general  and  extensive  use  of  this  crop.  The  average 
acre  yields  obtained  in  some  of  the  leading  potato-producing 


2.4.35% 

Fig.  131.     Percentage  of  the  potato  crop  of  the   United  States  which  is  pro- 
duced in  each  of  the  fifteen  states  of  largest  production,  1902-1911. 

countries  for  the  ten  years,  1900-1909,  inclusive,  are  as  follows : 
Germany,  200  bushels;  United  Kingdom,  194  bushels;  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 141  bushels;  France,  134  bushels;  Russia,  100 
bushels;  and  the  United  States,  92  bushels. 

556.  Production  in  the  United  States.  As  shown  by  the 
preceding  paragraph,  the  United  States  produces  only  about 
6  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop  of  potatoes.  For  the  ten  years, 
1902-1911,  inclusive,  an  average  of  3,230,000  acres  was  de- 
voted to  the  potato  crop  in  the  United  States,  from  which 
304, 158,000  bushels  were  produced,  worth  $177,503.000. 


426  FIELD  CROPS 

Ten  states  produce  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  potato  crop 
of  the  United  States,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram 
(Fig.  131).  The  remainder  of  the  crop  is  distributed  over 
practically  the  entire  area  of  the  country,  potatoes  being 
produced  to  some  extent  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 
The  states  of  largest  production,  however,  are  mostly  along 
the  northern  border.  As  shown  in  Fig.  132,  this  crop  is  of 
greater  importance  in  Maine  than  in  any  other  state,  occupy- 
ing more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  improved  farm  land. 

657.  Acre  Yield.  The  yield  per  acre  obtained  in  the 
different  states  varies  greatly.  With  the  exception  of  Maine, 

N.Y.  ^HMKKHKBHMI^^MHHni  2.65% 
MICH.  ••BHBHBNBBiMaHHHHiHM  2.7/% 
WIS.  IMHHBMHMHHHMHMi  Z.34% 

MAINE  wmammmm^mmmmmm^moB^mi^mm^^mamm  5.23% 

pENN. 

MINN. 

OHIO 

IOWA 
ILL. 
CALIF. 
U.S. 

Fig.  132.     Percentage  of  the  improved  farm  land  which  was  annually  planted 
to  potatoes    in  the  ten  leading  states  and  the    United  States,  1902-1911. 

the  states  which  produce  high  yields  grow  only  compara- 
tively small  acreages  of  potatoes.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  is  higher  in  Maine  than  in  any  other  state.  In  the 
Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  states  the  yield  is  usually  high, 
as  the  crop  is  grown  under  irrigation.  With  the  exception 
of  California,  Colorado,  and  Washington,  none  of  these  states 
produce  potatoes  in  quantity.  In  most  of  the  important 
potato  states,  the  yield  is  below  95  bushels  to  the  acre. 

558.  Soils.  Potatoes,  like  many  of  the  other  farm  crops, 
are  grown  on  almost  all  classes  of  soil.  Medium  light  loams 
are  best  adapted  to  potato  growing,  and  are  likely  to  give 
the  best  quality  of  tubers,  though  some  excellent  potatoes 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  POTATOES  427 

are  produced  on  very  heavy  clay.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  crop  is  produced  on  the  lighter  types  of  soil.  Sandy  and 
sandy  loam  soils  are  especially  desirable  for  producing 
smooth,  clean  potatoes  of  high  quality.  Such  soils,  how- 
ever, are  quickly  exhausted,  unless  kept  up  by  the  rotation 
of  crops  and  by  the  application  of  manure.  Any  soil,  to 
produce  a  good  crop  of  potatoes,  should  be  well  supplied 
with  vegetable  matter,  and  be  rich  and  mellow  to  a  consider- 
able depth. 

559.  Manures  and  Fertilizers.     Stable  manure  is  one  of 
the  most  desirable  fertilizers  for  potatoes.     It  not  only  fur- 
nishes the  necessary  plant  food,  but  helps  to  loosen  the  soil 
and  to  hold  moisture,  providing  conditions  very  favorable  for 
potatoes.     On  ordinary  soils,  a  dressing  of  from  8  to  15  loads 
of  stable  manure  to  the  acre,  well  mixed  with  the  soil,  is  a 
suitable  application  for  the  crop.     Potatoes  use  much  potash, 
but  most  soils  are  well  supplied  with  this  element.     When 
commercial  fertilizers  are  used,  a  complete  fertilizer  con- 
taining from  2  to  4  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  6  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  8  per  cent  of  potash,  is  usually  applied. 
Five  hundred  pounds  or  more  of  this    fertilizer  are  applied 
to  the  acre,  the  rate  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil. 
In  the  South,  where  soils  are  subject  to  considerable  washing 
and  loss  of  fertility  during  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  year,  larger 
applications  are  usually  made,  often  from  1000  to  2000 
pounds  to  the  acre.     On  some  of  the  lighter  types  of  soils, 
or  where  leaching  is  at  all  likely  to  take  place,  the  fertilizers 
are  often  added  during  the  growing  season. 

560.  Preparing  the  Land.    Soil  for  potatoes  should,  as 
a  rule,  be  plowed  deep,  from  8  to  10  or  12  inches  on  the  better 
soils.     It  is  not  desirable,  however,  to  plow  an  extremely  light 
soil  so  deep,  unless  it  has  been  heavily  fertilized  with  stable 
manure,  and  the  manure  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil. 


428  FIELD  CROPS 

Fall  plowing  is  to  be  preferred,  though  equally  good  results 
can  usually  be  obtained  if  spring-plowed  land  is  thoroughly 
prepared.  If  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  it  becomes  dis- 
integrated and  packed  by  settling  and  from  the  action  of  the 
weather,  and  when  the  upper  surface  is  cultivated  and  put 
in  good  condition  in  the  spring,  a  better  seed  bed  is  secured 
than  is  commonly  the  case  with  spring  plowing. 

ft  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  it  is  important  that  it  be  har- 
rowed early  in  the  spring  to  aid  in  warming  up  the  soil  and 
to  conserve  moisture.  Fall-plowed  land  which  is  left 
hard  and  compact  for  several  weeks  after  it  thaws  out  in  the 
spring  will  probably  be  in  poorer  condition  than  well-cared- 
for  spring-plowed  land.  The  potato  crop  is  capable  of  bring- 
ing comparatively  large  returns  to  the  acre,  and  it  is  usually 
better  to  expend  more  labor  and  fertilizer  in  getting  the  soil 
in  first-class  condition  than  is  practical  with  grain  and  corn 
crops,  which  do  not  give  as  large  returns. 

In  some  places  where  potatoes  are  grown  in  an  intensive 
way  and  where  large  yields  are  very  important,  the  land  is 
plowed  in  the  fall  and  again  in  the  spring.  The  fall  plowing, 
which  is  comparatively  shallow,  aids  in  saving  moisture, 
destroys  many  weeds  and  insects,  and  leaves  the  land  open 
to  the  action  of  the  elements  during  the  winter.  If  manure 
is  to  be  used  it  is  applied  during  the  winter  or  in  early  spring, 
on  top  of  the  fall  plowing,  and  thoroughly  disked  into  the 
upper  3  to  5  inches  of  the  soil.  The  land  is  then  plowed  in 
the  spring  2  or  3  inches  deeper  than  it  was  in  the  fall,  and 
the  plowing  followed  by  thorough  disking  and  harrowing. 
While  this  practice  is  not  at  all  general,  it  is  advisable  in  very 
many  instances. 

561.  Seed.  Much  profit  is  lost,  under  the  common 
methods  of  growing  potatoes,  from  the  planting  of  poor  seed. 
There  is  some  tendency  for  potatoes  to  "run  out"  if  grown 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED  POTATOES 


429 


cn  any  but  the  very  best  soil,  unless  care  is  used  in  the  selec- 
tion of  seed.  The  first  indication  of  the  "running  out"  of 
a  stock  of  potatoes  is  seen  in  the  tubers  becoming  somewhat 
pinched  or  constricted  at  the  seed  end,  and  longer  in  propor- 
tion to  the  thickness  than  is  typical  of  the  variety.  One 
must  have  clearly  in 
mind  the  desirable  type 
of  the  variety,  and  select 
persistently  to  that  type. 
If  this  is  done,  potatoes 
may  be  grown  success- 
fully for  years  without 
deterioration,  or  without 
the  necessity  of  introduc- 
ing new  seed.  Some  of 
the  desirable  types  of 
potatoes  are  shown  in 
Figure  133. 

The  only  condition 
which  seems  to  require  a 
change  of  seed  is  found 
in  the  South.  This  con- 
dition is  not  brought 
about  by  deterioration  in 
the  stock,  but  by  the 
difficulty  experienced  in 
keeping  the  seed  till 
planting  time,  owing  to 
the  warm  climate.  Much 
of  the  seed  used  in  the  South  is  shipped  in,  and  in  Maine, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  some  of  the  other  northern 
states  a  considerable  business  has  been  developed  in 
providing  seed  stock  for  the  South.  This  seed  is  usually 


Fig.  133.  Types  of  potatoes.  No.  1  is  an 
undesirable  type,  irregular  in  shape  and 
with  deep  eyes.  The  others  are  smooth  and 
regular  and  have  shallow  eyes.  No.  2  is  Bur- 
bank;  No.  Sis  Carman;  No.  4  is  Early  Ohio. 


430  FIELD  CROPS 

stored  in  the  North  and  shipped  south  only  in   time   for 
planting. 

A  point  that  must  be  considered  in  selecting  seed  pota- 
toes, especially  if  one  is  raising  them  for  market,  is  the  market 
demand.  Too  many  growers  have  individual  preferences 
regarding  varieties  and  types  of  potatoes  and  try  to  raise 
potatoes  that  please  them,  without  regard  to  the  kind  that 
the  large  buyers  want;  consequently  they  experience  diffi- 
culty in  selling  their  crop  at  good  prices.  Buyers,  as  a  rule, 
want  medium-sized,  smooth,  clean,  shallow-eyed  potatoes  of 
good  quality.  If  one  takes  into  consideration  the  fact  that 
it  costs  from  5  to  10  cents  more  to  peel  a  bushel  of  rough, 
uneven  potatoes  than  of  smooth,  uniform  ones,  and  that  the 
loss  in  peeling  the  deep-eyed  kind  is  very  much  greater,  he 
will  see  a  very  good  reason  why  the  dealers  are  willing  to  pay 
from  15  to  25  cents  more  for  potatoes  of  a  good  type.  Only 
by  growing  such  potatoes  as  the  market  demands  can  one 
hope  to  secure  the  best  prices  for  his  surplus. 

562.  Preparing  Seed  for  Planting.     Seed  potatoes  always 
show  a  tendency  to  sprout  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes 
warm.     The  production  of  sprouts  that  are  long  enough  to 
break  off  in  handling  takes  just  so  much  plant  food  from  the 
seed  tubers.     Seed  potatoes  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place 
during  the  spring,  and  stored  so  that  air  can  circulate  freely 
about  them.     A  low  temperature  can  usually  be  maintained 
in  the  root  cellar  or  basement  if  the  windows  and  doors  are 
opened  during  the  night  and  closed  during  the  hotter  part 
of  the  day.     It  is  usually  well  to  treat  potatoes  for  scab  be- 
fore planting,  (Sec.  577). 

563.  Cutting    Seed.     Experiments    have    shown    that 
pieces  of  seed  potatoes  weighing  2  or  3  ounces  give  better 
yields  than  smaller  pieces.     The  general  practice,  however, 
is  to  plant  about  10  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre.     To  plant 


PLANTING  POTATOES  431 

an  acre  with  that  quantity  of  seed,  the  pieces  must  be  cut  to 
about  an  ounce  in  size,  if  planted  at  the  usual  distances. 
One  eye  is  sufficient  for  each  piece.  If  one-ounce  pieces  ar( 
used  there  will  usually  be  more  than  one  eye  on  each  piece, 
but  as  a  rule  only  one  will  grow  to  any  extent,  and  so  the 
additional  eyes  are  not  objectionable.  When  potatoes  are 
grown  on  a  large  scale,  they  are  cut  with  a  machine  with 
stationary  knives  so  arranged  that  a  potato  laid  on  top  of 
the  knives  and  pushed  down  over  them  will  be  cut  in  pieces 
of  about  the  right  size.  Occasionally  pieces  without  eyes 
may  be  cut  by  this  method,  but  it  happens  so  seldom  that 
machine  cutting  is  entirely  satisfactory.  When  potatoes  are 
grown  on  a  small  scale,  they  are  usually  cut  by  hand  with  a 
knife. 

564.  Planting.  The  most  common  method  of  planting 
potatoes  is  in  drills  from  3  feet  to  3)^  feet  apart,  with  one 
seed  piece  dropped  at.  intervals  of  fro.m  14  to  20  inches. 
Planting  in  this  way  requires  about  10  to  12  bushels  of  seed 
to  the  acre. 

The  time  of  planting  naturally  varies  with  the  location. 
In  the  Northern  states,  potatoes  for  early  market  are  planted 
as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  put  in  good  condition  in  the 
spring.  The  later  crop  is  planted  at  any  time  in  May,  and 
sometimes  as  late  as  June  15.  Farther  south,  the  planting 
may  be  done  at  any  time  from  January  to  the  first  of  April. 
Where  two  crops  a  year  are  grown,  one  is  usually  planted 
in  January  or  February,  and  the  second  in  July  or  August. 

The  depth  of  planting  will  vary  with  the  soil  and  kind  of 
cultivation  to  be  given.  On  the  lighter  soils,  potatoes  are 
commonly  planted  from  4  to  5  inches  deep  and  given  level 
cultivation.  On  heavier  soils,  especially  where  the  land  is 
a  little  too  wet,  they  are  planted  more  shallow  and  are  hilled. 


432  FIELD  CROPS 

Where  potatoes  are  grown  on  a  small  scale,  as  for  home 
consumption,  they  are  usually  planted  by  opening  furrows 
with  a  common  plow  or  with  a  winged  shovel.  The  seed 
is  dropped  in  these  furrows  by  hand,  and  is  covered  with  the 
harrow  or  the  sulky  cultivator.  Where  a  large  acreage  is  to 
be  grown,  a  potato  planter  is  commonly  used.  Some  of 
these  machines  are  supplied  with  pickers  that  pick  up  the 
seed  pieces  and  drop  them  at  regular  intervals ;  this  type  may 


Fig.  134.  The  potato  planter.       A  good  machine  to  use  where  several  acres  of 
this  crop  are  to  be  planted. 

be  operated  by  one  man.  Another  type  is  known  as  the 
two-man  potato  planter;  this  requires  a  driver  and  an  ad- 
ditional man  or  boy  to  help  in  the  feeding  of  the  seed  to 
regulate  the  drop.  This  latter  type  is  considered  more  ac- 
curate, but  is  slightly  more  expensive  to  operate.  These 
potato  planters  are  equipped  with  a  shovel  which  opens  the 
furrow  into  which  the  seed  is  dropped,  and  with  disks  which 
run  behind  and  throw  the  dirt  on  the  row  to  cover  the  seed. 
A  marker  is -provided  to  mark  the  next  row  as  one  is  being 
planted. 


POTATO  CULTURE  433 

CULTIVATION  OF  POTATOES 

565.  Cultivation.    The  cultivation  of  potatoes  is  not  very 
different  from  the  cultivation  of  corn,  except  that  potatoes 
planted  in  the  ordinary  way,  from  3  to  5  inches  deep,  may 
be  harrowed  before  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  cultivate, 
without  danger  of  injury,  which  is  not  so  true  of  corn.     As 
soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen,  potatoes  are  commonly  culti- 
vated with  the  ordinary  corn  cultivator.     The  heaviest  cul- 
tivating should  be  done  the  first  time  through;  no  injury  is 
done  if  the  young  plants  are  covered  in  the  operation.     In 
fact,  covering  is  often  practiced  to  protect  early  potatoes 
from  a  prospective  frost.     The  subsequent  cultivation  should 
be  sufficient  to  keep  the  surface  soil  in  good  mellow  condition 
and  destroy  all  weeds  without  injuring  the  roots  of  the  pota- 
toes.    On  deep,  rich,  well-drained  land,  the  potato  roots  are 
likely  to  grow  deep  enough  so  that  thoroughly  good  cultiva- 
tion may  safely  be  given  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  3  inches. 
Cultivation  may  be  continued  until  prevented  by  the  spread 
of  the  vines.    The  later  cultivations  are  usually  given  with 
a  one-horse,  fine-toothed  cultivator. 

566.  Irrigation.    As  the  potato  crop  gives  large  returns 
to  the  acre,  it  is  quite  commonly  grown  on  irrigated  land. 
The  method  of  planting  in  drills  also  greatly  facilitates  the 
process  of  getting  water  to  the  crop.     Extremely  large  yields 
of  potatoes  are  obtained  under  irrigation;  in  fact,  the  states 
giving  the  largest  average  yields  per  acre  are  those  in  which 
the  main  part  of  the  crop  is  irrigated. 

567.  Harvesting.    As  a  rule,  potatoes  are  not  harvested 
until  they  are  ripe;  that  is,  until  the  vines  are  entirely  dead. 
However,  high  prices  may  make  it  profitable  to  dig  early 
potatoes    before    they   are   fully   mature,   even  though   a 
smaller  yield  is  obtained.    Where  only  a  small  acreage  is 


434 


FIELD  CROPS 


HARVESTING  POTATOES  435 

grown,  the  crop  is  commonly  dug  with  a  fork,  the  potatoes 
from  two  rows  being  thrown  together.  In  other  cases,  po- 
tatoes are  plowed  out  with  a  common  plow.  The  potatoes 
that  are  thus  exposed  are  picked  up;  then  the  land  is  har- 
rowed and  others  are  brought  to  the  surface.  This  method, 
however,  is  not  in  general  use  because  all  of  the  potatoes  are 
not  obtained.  Where  large  acreages  are  grown,  a  four-horse 
potato  digger  is  commonly  used.  This  machine  is  equipped 
with  a  broad,  sharp  point  which  runs  under  the  row  and 
carries  the  dirt,  vines,  and  potatoes  over  a  chain  elevator 
through  which  the  dirt  falls,  leaving  the  potatoes  to  be 
dropped  behind.  There  are  several  different  types  of  potato 
diggers,  but  all  work  on  approximately  the  same  principle. 
This  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  digging  potatoes 
where  there  is  much  of  it  to  do. 

568.  Picking.    No  satisfactory  method  of  picking   up  • 
potatoes  by  machinery  has  as  yet  been  invented.     Picking 
is  done  by  hand,  the  picker  using  a  basket,  a  bushel  box,  or 
a  sack.    Sometimes  several  baskets  are  set  on  a  stone-boat 
and  hauled  between  the  rows  with  one  horse,  the  pickers 
tossing  the  potatoes  into  the  baskets.     In  Maine  they  are 
commonly  gathered  in  baskets  and  then  put  into  barrels  for 
marketing. 

569.  Sorting.     Some  small  potatoes  are  always  produced 
with  the  large  ones,  and  often  there  are  irregular,  sunburned, 
and  diseased  tubers.     If  these  are  mixed  with  the  good, 
smooth,  uniform  potatoes  the  quality  of  the  whole  crop  is 
lowered.     On  this  account  most  growers  find  it  profitable 
to  sort  their  potatoes,  offering  for  sale  only  the  best  grade, 
and  using  the  poorer  ones  for  stock  feed  or  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  starch  or  alcohol.     Sorting  is  best  done  when  the  po- 
tatoes are  being  gathered,  for  at  that  time  one  can  most 
easily  reject  the  undesirable  tubers.     Machines   for  sorting 


436  FIELD  CROPS 

are  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  these  of  course  can  be 
effective  only  in  separating  potatoes  according  to  size. 

570.  Storing.  Potatoes  keep  best  at  a  temperature  be- 
tween 32°  and  40°  F.,  though  necessarily  they  are  often  kept 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time  at  higher  temperatures. 
Early  in  the  fall  they  are  very  commonly  put  in  piles  on  the 
ground  in  the  field  where  they  grew,  the  piles  being  covered 
with  potato  tops,  straw,  or  hay,  and  a  little  earth.  They  may 
be  kept  in  these  pits  until  late  in  the  fall,  or  even  all  winter 
if  necessary.  If  they  are  to  be  left  throughout  the  winter, 
a  pit  is  usually  dug  several  feet  deep  and  filled  with  potatoes 
and  covered  as  stated  above.  As  the  weather  gets  colder, 
more  earth  or  manure  is  piled  on  top  to  prevent  freezing.  It 
is  always  desirable  in  a  pit  of  any  kind  to  leave  a  small  open- 
ing for  ventilation. 

Potatoes  are  also  often  stored  in  cellars  under  houses. 
This  is  not  usually  advisable,  except  in  small  quantities  for 
home  use,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  because  the  cellar  is  likely  to 
be  too  warm  and  if  any  of  the  potatoes  spoil  they  make  con- 
ditions in  the  house  very  unhealthful  for  its  occupants.  Root 
cellars  built  separate  from  the  house  and  potato  warehouses 
are  far  better  storage  places.  Root  cellars  are  usually  built 
very  largely  in  the  ground  and  covered  with  a  considerable 
depth  of  earth.  Such  cellars  are  usually  cool  in  warm 
weather  and  sufficiently  warm  to  protect  potatoes  from 
freezing  in  cold  weather;  if  dry  and  well  ventilated,  they 
serve  their  purpose  very  well.  Potato  warehouses  are 
usually  built  near  the  railroad  track  so  that  shipments  may 
be  made  from  them  ao  any  time  during  the  winter.  The 
walls  of  these  houses  are  usually  made  as  nearly  frost-proof 
as  practical,  and  if  there  is  danger  of  freezing,  stoves  are 
used  to  raise  the  temperature  slightly. 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  POTATOES  437 

571.  Marketing.     There  are  no  standard  grades  of  pota- 
toes.    They  are  usually  marketed  as  table  stock,  as  seed 
stock,  or  as  white  or  red  stock,  the  prices  for  each  kind  de- 
pending upon  the  demand.    By  far  the  greater  portion  of 
the  potato  crop  is  marketed  as  table  stock,  and  better  prices 
are  secured  if  carload  lots  of  one  type  and  variety  can  be 
sold.     In  many  localities,  small  growers  are  seriously  handi- 
capped by  the  fact  that  it  is  practically  impossible  for  their 
buyer  to  get  a  carload  of  uniform  stock,  hence  all  of  the  pota- 
toes in  the  community,  though  they  may  be  good  in  quality, 
must  be  sold  as  mixed  stock,  bringing  a  comparatively  low 
price.     Many  of  the  small  growers  are  overcoming  this  dif- 
ficulty by  agreeing  to  grow  but  one  or  two  standard  varieties. 

The  time  of  marketing  is  always  a  matter  of  judgment. 
Sometimes  one  can  get  better  prices  by  holding  potatoes  for 
several  months  before  selling,  and  again  the  price  may  be 
lower  after  that  time.  People  who  grow  seed  potatoes  for 
the  southern  market  must  provide  some  way  of  storing  them, 
because  the  southern  buyers  do  not  want  them  until  near 
planting  time.  Many  communities  in  the  North  have  or- 
ganized companies  and  have  erected  cooperative  potato 
warehouses,  that  they  may  store  their  crop  if  necessary  and 
ship  when  prices  are  best. 

572.  Cost  of  Production.    The  cost  of  growing  potatoes 
varies  all  the  way  from  $20  to  $50  per  acre,  depending  upon 
the  system  of  cultivation,  price  of  labor,  rent  of  land,  number 
of  sprayings  given,  and  cost  of  fertilizer  applied.    The  Min- 
nesota station  found  that  in  the  potato-growing  sections  of 
that  state,  the  average  cost  of  growing  potatoes  on  331  acres 
of  unfertilized  land  was  $26.37   to  the  acre.     On  237  acres 
of  fertilized  land  in  the  same  community,  the  "~3rage  cost 
was  $37.72  per  acre.     The  items  that  must  be  considered  in 
determining  the  cost  of  producing  potatoes  are  plowing, 


438  FIELD  CROPS 

harrowing,  seed,  cutting  and  treating  seed,  planting,  fertili- 
zers, cultivation,  weeding,  spraying,  digging,  picking,  haul- 
ing, storing,  sorting,  machinery  cost,  and  land  rental. 

573.  Prices.    There  is  a  greater  variation  in  the  prices 
obtained  for  potatoes  than  for  most  of  the  other  general  farm 
crops,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  surplus  of  one  season  cannot 
be  carried  over  to  the  next.     There  is  also  a  great  variation 
in  price  during  the  same  year  in  different  sections  of  the 
United  States,  owing  to  the  bulkiness  of  the  crop  and  the 
cost  of  handling  and  transporting  from  one  place  to  another. 
The  average  farm  price  for  potatoes  in  the  Unites  States 
for  the  ten  years  from  1901  to  1910,  inclusive,  was  58.6  cents 
per  bushel.     The  average  price  in  Texas  for  the  same  ten 
years  was  99  cents;  in  South   Carolina,    $1.06;  in  Florida, 
$1.18;  and  in  New  Mexico,  93  cents. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  the  states  where 
such  high  prices  prevail  are  those  which  grow  very  small 
acreages  and  produce  comparatively  low  yields,  and  that  all 
of  these  states  ship  in  potatoes  rather  than  have  a  surplus  to 
ship  out.  During  the  forty-six  years,  1866-1911,  the  high- 
est average  farm  price  in  the  United  States  on  December  1 
was  79.9  cents,  in  1911;  the  lowest  was  26.6  cents,  in 
1895.  The  average  acre  value  for  potatoes  in  the  United 
States  for  the  ten  years  1902-1911,  inclusive,  was  $54.68. 
The  highest  acre  values  of  the  potato  crop  are  found  in  the 
West.  The  average  farm  value  in  Nevada  for  the  ten  years 
mentioned  was  $119.46  per  acre,  and  for  all  of  the  Far 
Western  states  was  $78.76  per  acre.  The  lowest  value  per 
acre  was  in  South  Dakota,  the  average  being  $40.01. 

574.  Exports  and  Imports.    The  United  States  is  still 
an  import^  nation;  that  is,  ordinarily  there  are  not  quite 
as  many  potatoes  produced  as  are  used.    The  average  an- 
nual exports  for  the  ten  years,  1900-1909,  were  926,000  bush- 


POTATO  DISEASES 


439 


els;  while  the  average  quantity  imported  during  the  same 
years  was  2,300,000  bushels. 

575.  Blight.  The  more  prevalent  diseases  are  blight, 
scab,  and  internal  brown  rot.  Blight  appears  in  two  forms, 
the  early  and  the  late.  Early  blight  attacks  the  leaves  of 
the  potato  plants  early  in  the  season,  and  gradually  spreads 


Kg.  136.     Spraying  to  prevent  disease  and  insect  injury  is  an  important  part 
of  modern  potato  growing. 

until  the  entire  plant  is  killed.  It  is  usually  first  seen  as 
dark  spots  on  the  leaves.  Late  blight  attacks  the  plants  in 
a  somewhat  similar  manner,  but  considerably  later  in  the 
season.  It  first  affects  the  plants  near  the  ground  and 
spreads  rapidly  upward;  the  diseased  parts  quickly  turn 


440  FIELD  CROPk 

black  and  wilt.  The  spores  which  fall  from  the  leaves  to 
the  ground  may  infect  the  tubers  and  cause  them  to  rot,  thus 
completely  destroying  the  crop. 

Blight  is  controlled  by  thoroughly  spraying  the  potato 
vines  with  Bordeaux  mixture  several  times  during  their 
growth.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  by  dissolving  5  pounds 
of  high-grade  stone  lime  in  25  gallons  of  water  and  5  pounds 
of  blue  vitriol  (copper  sulphate)  in  25  gallons  of  water  in 
another  receptacle.  When  the  blue  vitriol  is  completely  dis- 
solved, the  contents  of  the  two  barrels  are  poured  together 
and  the  mixture  is  complete.  Care  must  be  taken  that  suf- 
ficient lime  is  used,  or  the  mixture  may  injure  the  plants. 
The  treatment  has  no  effect  after  the  disease  has  started, 
but  is  a  preventive  which  must  be  used  often  enough  to 
prevent  the  germination  *of  the  blight  spores.  The  com- 
mon practice  is  to  spray  the  crop  first  when  the  vines  are 
from  6  to  8  inches  high,  and  repeat  the  spraying  every  ten 
days  or  two  weeks,  or  often  enough  to  keep  the  vines  well 
coated  with  the  mixture.  There  are  some  sections  where 
blight  is  not  sufficiently  troublesome  to  warrant  spraying, 
but  in  most  instances  it  proves  profitable. 

576.  Internal  Brown  Rot.  In  some  sections  and  in  some 
seasons,  internal  brown  rot  causes  immense  losses,  while  in 
other  sections  the  disease  is  hardly  known.  The  disease 
usually  gets  into  the  soil  with  the  seed  potatoes,  or  it  may 
live  over  in  a  soil  that  has  produced  diseased  potatoes.  It 
may  be  seen  when  tubers  are  cut  open  as  a  dark  brown  streak 
around  the  potato  a  short  distance  from  the  surface. 

The  only  remedy  for  this  disease  as  yet  known  is  to  make 
sure  that  clean  seed  is  planted.  Care  must  be  used  in  cut- 
ting seed  to  let  none  get  into  the  field  that  shows  any  indi- 
cations of  the  disease.  A  rotation  of  crops  which  provides 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  POTATOES  441 

for  the  growing  of  potatoes  but  once  in  several  seasons  on 
the  same  soil  is  also  effective. 

577.  Scab.    Scab,  which  attacks  the  outside  of  the  tu- 
bers, causing  rough,  unsightly  blotches,  also  does  immense 
damage  throughout  the  country.     The  disease  may  be  car- 
ried over  in  the  soil  or  on  the  seed.    As  it  works  on  the  out- 
side of  the  tubers,  it  may  be  controlled  by  treating  the  seed. 
Potatoes  that  show  any  indications  of  scab  should  be  treated 
before  they  are  cut.     Mix  1  pound  of  40  per  cent  formalde- 
hyde in  30  or  35  gallons  of  water  and  soak  the  seed  potatoes 
in  this  solution  for  two  hours.     If  the  soil  is  infected  with 
scab,  potatoes  should  not  be  planted  on  it  for  several  years. 
Plowing  under  green  manure  crops  which  will  develop  acid 
in  the  soil  is  somewhat  effective  in  destroying  the  spores. 

578.  Insects  Injurious  to  Potatoes.    There  are  a  num- 
ber of  insects  which  affect  the  potato  crop.     Cutworms, 
wireworms,  and  grubs  often  attack  the  crop  on  sod  land. 
The  control  of  these  pests  has  been  discussed  under  corn. 
By  far  the  most  troublesome  insect  is  the  potato  bug,  or 
Colorado  beetle.      The  mature  beetle  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  of  the  potato.  The  larvae  feed  on  the 
leaves  and  if  not  checked  will  strip  the  plant,  thus  prevent- 
ing further  growth.    These  bugs  cause  an  immense  loss  to 
the  potato  crop  throughout  the  United  States  every  year. 

Potato  bugs  are  usually  controlled  by  spraying  the  vines 
with  Paris  green,  arsenate  of  lead,  or  arsenite  of  soda.  By 
far  the  most  common  poison  is  Paris  green.  This  is  mixed 
in  water  at  the  rate  of  from  1  to  4  pounds  in  50  gallons,  and 
sprayed  on  the  vines  either  by  hand  with  a  whisk  broom, 
with  a  small  knapsack  sprayer,  or  by  a  large  horse  sprayer 
that  will  spray  several  rows  at  a  time.  The  machine  em- 
ployed usually  depends  on  the  extent  to  which  the  crop  is 
grown.  It  is  important  that  the  solution  be  applied  quite 


442  FIELD  CROPS 

thoroughly  to  all  parts  of  the  plant,  and  in  strong  enough 
form  to  be  sure  to  destroy  the  bugs.  The  use  of  a  poor 
grade  of  poison  or  of  a  weak  solution  may  make  the  work 
ineffective.  Early  and  effective  spraying  is  imperative. 
Spraying  for  both  blight  and  bugs  may  be  accomplished  by 
mixing  poison  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  instead  of  with 
water,  and  applying  both  at  one  operation. 

579.  Rotations  for  Potatoes.  Potatoes  fit  into  a  rotation 
very  much  as  corn  does;  that  is,  it  is  a  good  crop  to  follow 
clover  or  grass  and  grain  crops  succeed  well  following  it. 
Grain  crops  are  slightly  more  likely  to  lodge  following  a  pota- 
to crop,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  potatoes  draw  rather 
heavily  on  the  potash  supply  and  leave  the  soil  more  mellow 
and  loose  than  corn. 

A  very  common  rotation  in  the  general  potato-growing 
sections  in  the  North  is:  First  year,  clover;  second  year, 
potatoes;  and  third  year,  grain.  In  this  rotation  the  pota- 
toes are  planted  on  clover  sod,  and  if  available,  a  good  appli- 
cation of  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer  is  added.  On  light 
or  worn  soils,  such  a  rotation  is  desirable,  at  least  until  the 
condition  of  the  soil  is  greatly  improved.  In  many  cases, 
soils  thus  cropped  have  become  so  enriched  as  to  cause  suc- 
ceeding grain  crops  to  lodge.  The  rotation  may  then  well 
be  changed  to  a  four-year  system,  introducing  a  crop  of  corn 
following  the  potato  crop.  Such  a  rotation  would  then  be: 
First  year,  grain;  second  year,  clover;  third  year,  potatoes; 
fourth  year,  corn.  The  two  cultivated  crops,  corn  and  pota- 
toes, usually  draw  heavily  enough  on  the  fertility  so  that  the 
succeeding  grain  crop  will  not  grow  too  rank  and  lodge. 

In  the  South,  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter  is  main- 
tained usually  by  growing  cowpeas  or  some  other  green 
manure  crop,  preceding  and  following  the  potato  crop.  A 
two-year  rotation  commonly  followed  is:  First  year,  corn 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  POTATOES  443 

and  cowpeas  followed  by  rye;  second  year,  Irish  potatoes 
followed  by  winter  vetch  or  crimson  clover. 

580.  Crossing.    Improvement  in  potatoes  is  commonly 
accomplished  in  two  ways,  by  selecting  new  varieties  grown 
from  seed  and  by  selecting  the  best  tubers  from  the  best  hills 
of  some  of  the  common  varieties.     If  seed  produced  on  potato 
vines  is  planted,  there  will  be  great  variation  in  the  plants 
which  are  obtained.    This  variation  gives  the  breeder  a  wide 
range  from  which  to  select.     Crosses  between  two  varieties 
of  known  characters  are  sometimes  made  artificially  with  a 
view  to  combining  in  one  variety  the  good  qualities  of  both. 
The  desired  results  are  not  always  secured,  as  the  poor  quali- 
ties of  the  two  varieties  crossed  are  as  likely  to  predominate 
in  the  progeny  as  the  good  ones.   However,  good  results  are 
sometimes  obtained  from  intelligent  crossing  and  subsequent 
selection,  some  of  our  leading  varieties  of  potatoes  having 
been  produced  in  this  way. 

581.  Selection.    Breeding  by  selection  is  by  far  the  most 
common  method  of  improving  varieties  of  potatoes,  and  one 
which  may  be  practiced  with  profit  by  any  careful  grower. 
It  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  productivity  of  individual 
tubers  in  a  variety  differs.    By  selecting  those  tubers  which 
appear  to  be  best  and  then  comparing  their  productivity  by 
planting  them  in  a  uniform  field  and  harvesting  the  product 
from  each  tuber  separately,  those  which  produce  large  yields 
of  good  quality  may  be  preserved  and  propagated. 

The  method  of  selection  most  practical  on  the  average 
farm  is  to  observe  a  large  number  of  hills  as  they  are  dug  and 
save  for  seed  the  tubers  from  hills  that  produced  the  largest 
number  of  desirable  potatoes.  Many  experiments  have 
shown  marked  improvement  from  such  methods  of  selection. 


444  FIELD  CROPS 

THE  SWEET  POTATO 

582.  Origin  and  Description.  The  sweet  potato  is  a 
native  of  the  New  World  and  quite  probably  also  of  eastern 
Asia,  as  it  was  cultivated  in  China  in  early  times.  It  was 
not  known  in  Europe  till  after  the  discovery  of  America. 
The  edible  portion  is  a  true  root,  one  of  the  few  which  are 
used  as  food.  The  plant  is  a  member  of  the  Convulvulaceae 


Fig.  137.  Five  varieties  of  sweet  potatoes:  1,  Black  Spanish  or  "Nigger 
Choker;"  2,  Long,  cylindrical  type;  3,  Jersey  group,  spindle  shape;  4,  Ked 
Bermuda;  5,  Southern  Queen.  The  last  three  are  most  desirable  in  shape. 

or  morning-glory  family;  the  species  is  Ipomea  batatas.  The 
plant  produces  numerous  running  vines  several  feet  in  length, 
with  smooth,  shining  leaves  about  the  shape  and  size  of  those 
of  a  morning-glory.  The  edible  roots  are  produced  in  a 
cluster  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Sweet  pota- 
toes are  reproduced  from  sprouts  from  the  roots  or  from  cut- 
tings of  the  vines,  and  not  from  seed. 


THE  SWEET  POTATO  445 

583.  Varieties.    The  varieties  that  are  commonly  grown 
in  the  more  northern  states  are  of  the  Jersey  type,  including 
the  Big  Stem,  Yellow,  and  Red  Jersey  varieties.    The  pota- 
toes are  rather  short  and  thick,  with  light  yellow  flesh,  which 
is  likely  to  be  rather  dry,  especially  late  in  the  season.     In 
the  South,  the  "yam"  type  of  sweet  potato  is  the  more  popu- 
lar.   The  varieties  of  this  type  are  much  sweeter  and  moister 
than  those  of  the  Jersey  type;  the  flesh  may  be  light  yellow, 
orange,  or  mottled.    The  individual  roots  are  usually  short 
and  thick,  though  they  may  be  very  slender  in  some  varie- 
ties.   The  most  popular  varieties  of  the  yam  type  are  South- 
ern Queen,  Georgia,  and  Red  Bermuda. 

584.  Importance.    The  area  annually  devoted  to  sweet 
potatoes  in  the  United  States  is  about  640,000  acres.    The 
production  in  1909  was  59,222,000  bushels.     As  the  crop  re- 
quires at  least  four  and  one-half  months  without  frost  for  its 
growth,  with  plenty  of  warm  weather  both  day  and  night, 
its  culture  is  confined  largely  to  the  Southern  states,  though 
it  may  be  grown  for  home  use  as  far  north  as  southern  New 
York  and  from  there  westward  to  Iowa  and  Nebraska. 
Sweet  potatoes  may  be  grown  for  market  in  the  South  Atlan- 
tic and  Gulf  states,  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys  as  far 
up  as  southern  Iowa  and  the  vicinity  of  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
and  in  the  central  valleys  of  California.     Among  the  princi- 
pal districts  where  the  crop  is  grown  on  a  large  scale  for 
market  are  New  Jersey,  eastern  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and 
near  Merced,  California. 

585.  Soils  and  Fertilizers.    The  best  soil  for  sweet  pota- 
toes is  a  sand  or  sandy  loam  with  a  clay  or  clay  loam  subsoil. 
The  loose  surface  soil  gives  the  roots  a  chance  to  develop, 
while  the  heavy  subsoil  retains  the  moisture  and  prevents 
the  formation  of  long  slender  roots  which  are  not  marketable. 
Soils  of  this  nature  tend  to  produce  the  rather  short,  spindle- 


446 


FIELD  CROP8 


shaped  potatoes  so  much  desired  for  the  market,  of  the  type 
shown  in  Fig.  138.  The  sweet  potato  will  grow  in  very  poor 
soils,  though  it  will  yield  better  in  those  of  moderate  fertility. 
The  land  should  be  rich  enough  to  produce  a  good  growth  of 
vines  and  foliage,  but  too  much  manure  or  too  rich  soil  will 
tend  toward  the  production  of  a  heavy  top  growth  with  only 
a  few  small,  undesirable  potatoes.  The  quantity  of  commer- 


Fig.  138.  The  type  of  sweet  potato  plants  suitable  for  setting. 

cial  fertilizer  which  is  ordinarily  used  is  small,  only  from  200 
to  500  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  use  of  crimson  clover  or 
some  other  legume  in  the  rotation  is  desirable  to  furnish  the 
necessary  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 

586.  Growing  the  Plants.  Sweet  potatoes  are  ordinarily 
grown  from  sprouts  from  the  roots  rather  than  by  planting 
the  roots  themselves  in  the  field,  though  this  latter  practice 


80IL8   FOR   SWEET  POTATOES  447 

is  followed  to  some  extent  in  the  South.  The  usual  plan  is 
to  start  the  plants  in  a  bed  of  warm  soil  or  in  a  hotbed  and 
remove  the  plants  for  setting  in  the  field  as  they  become 
large  enough.  As  the  roots  continue  to  send  up  shoots  for 
some  time,  a  comparatively  small  number  will  produce 
sprouts  enough  for  a  considerable  area.  A  half-bushel  of 
seed  will  supply  1,000  good  plants  at  the  first  pulling.  The 
best  plants  are  usually  produced  in  a  moderate  hotbed,  from 
roots  buried  about  3  inches  deep  in  leaf  mold  or  rather  loose 
earth.  Before  setting  in  the  field,  the  plants  should  be  pulled 
carefully  from  the  bed  and  bunched  in  baskets  or  boxes. 
They  will  keep  much  better  if  they  are  '  "puddled"  by  dipping 
the  roots  in  a  thin  mud  of  clay  and  water,  but  the  tops  of 
the  plants  should  be  kept  dry.  Sweet  potatoes  may  also  be 
propagated  from  cuttings  of  the  vines,  which  root  readily. 
If  only  a  few  plants  are  wanted  for  home  use,  it  is  often  easier 
and  cheaper  to  buy  the  plants  than  to  grow  them. 

587.  Preparation  of  the  Soil.  The  right  type  of  soil  for 
sweet  potatoes  is  easily  prepared,  It  should  be  plowed  some 
time  previous  to  give  it  time  to  settle,  and  disked  and  har- 
rowed sufficiently  to  put  it  in  good  tilth.  As  good  drainage 
is  essential  to  success,  ridge  culture  is  practiced  if  the  land 
is  not  naturally  well  drained.  Planting  on  flat  or  unridged 
land  is  less  expensive  and  just  as  satisfactory  unless  drainage 
is  needed.  The  ridges,  which  should  be  3j/£  or  4  feet  apart, 
may  be  made  by  throwing  furrows  together  with  a  plow. 
This  should  be  done  long  enough  before  planting  to  allow 
the  land  to  become  firm  again.  Just  before  the  plants  are 
set,  a  light  harrowing  will  put  the  land  in  good  condition. 
It  should  then  be  gone  over  with  a  marker  which  indicates 
the  rows  (if  the  land  is  not  ridged),  and  the  distances  at 
which  the  plants  should  be  set  in  the  row.  For  level  culture, 
the  plants  are  usually  set  about  2  feet  apart  each  way,  though 


448  FIELD  CROPS 


they  may  be  2J/£  by  2  feet  or  even  2J^  by  2J^  feet.  Plants 
are  usually  set  about  16  or  18  inches  apart  when  planted  in 
ridges.  It  is  not  necessary  to  mark  the  rows  if  a  transplant- 
ing machine  is  used. 

688.  Setting  the  Plants.  The  plants  should  not  be  set 
in  the  field  till  all  danger  of  frost  is  past.  The  setting  may 
be  done  by  hand  or  with  a  transplanting  machine.  If  the 
plants  are  to  be  set  by  hand,  the  work  can  be  hastened  by 
opening  a  shallow  furrow  down  the  line  of  the  ridge  or  along 
the  mark.  The  principal  things  to  observe  in  setting  are  to 
have  the  roots  and  the  soil  moist  and  to  press  the  earth 
firmly  about  the  plants.  Planting  as  soon  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked  after  a  rain  or  putting  a  half  pint  or  so  of  water 
in  each  hole  will  help  materially  in  getting  a  good  stand. 
Only  strong,  well-rooted  plants  should  be  set. 

589.  Cultivation.    The  cultivation  of  sweet  potatoes  is 
not  different  from  that  given  to  most  other  cultivated  crops. 
The  surface  of  the  soil  should  be  stirred  often  enough  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  weeds  and  to  hold  the  soil  moisture. 
One  or  two  hoeings  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  weeds 
from  the  rows.     Shallow  cultivation  should  be  given  after 
each  rain  till  the  vines  have  covered  the  ground  pretty  com- 
pletely, when  the  field  should  be  "laid  by"  by  throwing  some 
earth  toward  the  row  at  the  last  cultivation. 

590.  Digging.    Sweet  potatoes  should  be  dug  before  frost, 
as  they  are  easily  injured.     If  the  vines  freeze  before  they  are 
dug,  they  should  be  cut  away  at  once  to  prevent  the  frozen 
sap  from  going  back  into  the  roots.     The  potatoes  are  usually 
plowed  out,  a  rolling  coulter  being  used  to  cut  the  vines. 
Care  should  be  used  in  harvesting  and  marketing  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  potatoes;  the  ordinary  potato  digger  is  quite 
likeiy  to  bruise  them,  and  a  bruised  sweet  potato  does  not 
keep  long.    The  potatoes  are  usually  picked  up  by  hand  and 


USES  OF  SWEET  POTATOES  449 

carried  to  the  packing  shed  for  grading.  Those  which  are  to 
be  shipped  some  distance  are  generally  packed  in  ventilated 
barrels,  while  those  which  are  marketed  near  by  are  sold  in 
baskets  or  crates.  For  winter  storage,  a  dry  room  or  cellar 
maintaining  a  temperature  of  35°  F.  is  best. 

591.  Uses.  Sweet  potatoes  are  ordinarily  used  as  food 
for  man,  and  may  be  prepared  for  the  table  in  many  ways. 
They  form  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  throughout 
the  South,  where  they  are  much  more  generally  used  than 
are  white  or  Irish  potatoes.  The  vines  have  some  slight 
value  as  feed  for  stock,  and  some  of  the  coarser  varieties  of 
potatoes  are  grown  for  feeding  to  hogs  and  other  animals. 
When  these  varieties  are  grown  for  hog  pasture,  they  are  not 
dug,  but  the  hogs  are  turned  in  and  allowed  to  root  out  the 
potatoes.  While  they  grow  well  on  this  food,  the  hogs  must 
be  given  some  corn  in  order  to  fatten  them. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Secure  at  least  100  potatoes  of  some  standard  variety  and  select 
from  them  the  10  that  most  nearly  represent  the  variety.     Pay  special 
attention  to  the  potatoes  that  show  signs  of  running  out  as  indicated 
by  elongation  and  pinching  up  of  the  seed  end,  and  compare  these  with 
the  ones  selected. 

2.  If  possible,  secure  a  sample  of  potatoes  affected  by  internal 
brown  rot.    Cut  open  several  tubers  to  become  familiar  with  the  effect 
of  the  disease  and  to  learn  to  identify  it. 

3.  Secure  10  pounds  of  medium-sized,  smooth,  shallow-eyed  pota- 
toes, and  10  pounds  of  rough,  deep-eyed  potatoes.    Carefully  pare  both 
samples,  noting  the  time  required  and  the  appearance.    Weigh  the 
pared  potatoes  of  each  sample.     What  was  the  percentage  of  waste  in 
each  and  what  was  the  difference  in  time  required  to  peel  the  two 
samples? 

4.  Dig  100  hills  of  potatoes  in  a  field  where  all  hills  had  as  nearly 
uniform  conditions  as  possible.    Note  the  weight,  uniformity,  character, 
and  proportion  of  marketable  tubers  in  each  hill.     What  would  be  the 

17 


450  FIELD  CROPS 

yield  and  value  of  an  acre  of  potatoes  planted  in  the  usual  manner  if 
all  hills  were  like  the  best?    If  all  were  like  the  poorest? 

5.  Go  into  a  field  of  growing  potatoes,  put  up  stakes  beside  hills 
on  which  the  foliage  has  been  destroyed  by  bugs  or  blight,  and  by  hills 
with  foliage  uninjured.    At  digging  time  note  yields  from  the  marked 
hills.    The  results  will  emphasize  the  importance  of  spraying. 

6.  Obtain  three  potatoes  of  about  the  same  size  of  each  variety 
commonly  grown  in  your  community.    Put  them  all  in  a  uniformly 
heated  oven  and  bake  until  one  variety  is  well  done.    Remove  all 
potatoes  and  examine  as  to  baking  and  quality.     Is  there  any  reason 
why  buyers  prefer  a  car  of  potatoes  of  one  variety  to  a  car  of  mixed 
varieties? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

35,  Potato  Culture. 

91,  Potato  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment. 

295,  Potatoes  and  other  Root  Crops  as  Food. 

342,  pp.  10-14,  Potato  Breeding. 

386,  Potato  Culture  on  Irrigated  Farms  of  the  West. 

407,  The  Potato  as  a  Truck  Crop. 

410,  Potato  Culls  as  a  Source  of  Industrial  Alcohol. 

324,  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 
Fitz'  Sweet  Potato  Culture. 
Fraser's  The  Potato. 

Terry  and  Root's  A  B  C  of  Potato  Culture. 
Van  Ornam's  Potatoes  for  Profit. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SUGAR  PLANTS 

592.  Introduction.  The  two  leading  sugar  plants  of  the 
world  are  the  sugar  beet  and  sugar  cane.  Sugar  cane  has 
been  cultivated  for  many  centuries;  the  development  of  the 
sugar-beet  industry  dates  back  little  more  than  a  hundred 
years.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  is  confined  to  the 
tropical  and  semi  tropical  portions  of  the  world;  the  sugar 
beet  is  a  plant  which  succeeds  best  in  temperate  climates. 
At  the  present  time,  the  world's  production  of  sugar  is  about 
equally  divided  between  these  two  crops.  For  the  year 
1910-11,  the  production  of  cane  sugar  was  8,522,000  tons, 
while  that  of  beet  sugar  was  8,576,000  tons. 

THE  SUGAR  BEET 

593.  History  and  Description.  Reference  has  already 
been  made  to  the  sugar  beet  in  the  chapter  on  root  forage 
crops;  it  is  one  of  the  several  forms  of  Beta  vulgaris,  of  which 
the  mangel  is  another.  The  sugar  beet  is  a  broad-leaved 
plant  with  a  long  tap  root.  The  upper  p  art  of  this  root  and 
the  base  of  the  stem  are  thickened;  the  root  is  broadest  a 
little  below  the  crown  and  tapers  very  gradually,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  139.  The  flesh  and  skin  of  the  sugar-beet  root  are 
white;  the  root  grows  almost  entirely  below  the  surface.  A 
good  root  weighs  from  1  to  1J/2  pounds,  and  contains  about 
20  per  cent  of  solids,  of  which  about  four-fifths  are  sugar. 
The  plant  is  a  biennial;  seed  is  produced  by  storing  the  roots 
over  winter  and  setting  them  out  the  following  spring. 


45-2  FIELD  CROPS 

The  development  of  the  beet  as  a  sugar-producing  plant 
dates  to  about  1800,  when  German  chemists  began  to  experi- 
ment in  the  production  of  sugar  from  plants  which  could  be 
grown  in  temperate  climates.  The  increase  in  sugar  content 
of  the  beet  root  from  6  to  about  16  per  cent  is  the  result  of 
their  careful  breeding.  The  beet  sugar  industry  has  been 
and  is  an  immensely  valuable  one  in  Germany  and  other 
European  countries,  and  it  is  rapidly  developing  in  the 
United  States. 


Fig.  139.  Sugar  beets  of  the  most  desirable  type. 

594.  Importance.  Of  the  8,576,000  tons  of  beet  sugar 
produced  in  the  world  from  the  1910  crop,  6,347,000  tons, 
or  nearly  three-fourths,  were  produced  in  Germany,  Russia, 
and  Austria-Hungary.  The  development  of  the  beet- 
sugar  industry  in  the  United  States  is  of  comparatively  recent 
date.  It  was  not  till  1906  that  the  production  of  sugar  from 
beets  in  this  country  exceeded  that  from  sugar  cane.  In 


IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  SUGAR  BEET        453 

1900,  the  production  of  beet  sugar  amounted  to  76,589  long 
tons,  while  that  of  cane  sugar  was  278,470  long  tons,  or 
nearly  four  times  as  much.  In  1910,  the  production  of  beet 
sugar  had  reached  450,000  tons,  while  that  of  cane  sugar  was 
311,000  tons,  only  about  two-thirds  as  much.  The  average 
area  of  sugar  beets  harvested  in  the  United  States  for  the 
nine  years  from  1901  to  1909  was  297,000  acres,  with  a  pro- 
duction of  2,877,000  tons  of  beets,  from  which  685,387,000 
pounds  of  sugar  were  made.  In  this  time  the  area  devoted 
to  the  crop  had  increased  from  175,000  acres  in  1901  to  420,- 
000  acres  in  1909,  the  production  of  sugar  from  369,000,000 
pounds  to  1,025,000,000  pounds,  and  the  number  of  factories 
from  thirty-six  to  sixty-five. 

Colorado  was  the  leading  state  in  production  in  1909, 
with  sixteen  factories  and  298,810,000  pounds  of  sugar. 
California  was  second  with  254,544,000  pounds,  Michigan 
third  with  212,106,000  pounds,  and  Utah  fourth  with  97,- 
768,000  pounds.  Idaho  produced  about  forty  million 
pounds,  and  Wisconsin  about  thirty-four  million  pounds. 
In  addition,  there  was  one  factory  in  each  of  eleven  other 
states,  scattered  from  New  York  to  Washington  and  Ari- 
zona, with  a  total  production  of  87,382,000  pounds.  The 
area  of  sugar  beet  production  in  this  country  is  capable  of 
almost  indefinite  extension,  while  the  region  where  sugar 
cane  can  be  grown  is  comparatively  limited. 

595.  Culture.  The  culture  of  sugar  beets  differs  little 
from  that  of  mangels  (Sec.  535).  The  crop  grows  best  in  a 
loam  or  sandy  loam  soil.  Good  preparation  is  essential,  as 
the  seed  is  rather  slow  to  germinate.  The  land  should  be 
as  free  as  possible  from  weeds,  because  the  heaviest  expense 
of  production  is  for  cultivation.  The  seed  is  ordinarily  sown 
with  a  beet  drill  which  sows  several  rows  at  a  time;  the  usual 
distance  between  the  rows  is  from  20  to  28  inches.  Where  the 


454  FIELD  CROPS 

crop  is  irrigated,  the  beets  are  often  sown  in  double  rows 
1  foot  apart,  with  a  space  of  from  24  to  28  inches  between 
each  pair  of  rows.  To  irisure  a  full  stand,  20  pounds  of 
seed  to  the  acre  are  required.  Seeding  should  be  done  early 
in  May. 

Cultivation  should  be  begun  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be 
followed,  and  continued  at  intervals  of  six  or  eight  days  until 
the  tops  meet  between  the  rows.  A  special  cultivator 
which  cultivates  several  rows  at  a  time  is  in  common  use. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  perfect  stand  and  prevent  crowding, 
the  plants  must  be  thinned  at  about  the  time  the  fifth  leaf 
is  produced.  They  are  bunched  and  then  thinned  by  hand 
in  the  same  manner  as  already  described  for  mangels,  except 
that  the  distance  between  the  plants  is  about  8  inches. 
The  beets  should  be  harvested  before  danger  of  frost  in  the 
fall,  and  should  be  protected  from  freezing.  The  tops  are 
ordinarily  twisted  off  by  hand  and  the  beets  thrown  into 
piles,  from  which  they  are  hauled  to  the  sugar  factory  or 
shipping  station.  The  tops  are  usually  cured  for  feeding  to 
cattle  or  other  stock;  if  they  are  not  needed  as  forage,  they 
should  be  spread  on  the  land  as  fertilizer. 

The  highest  percentage  of  sugar  is  produced  when  there 
is  plenty  of  moisture,  particularly  during  the  early  growth, 
with  abundant  sunlight.  These  conditions  are  found  most 
commonly  in  the  irrigated  districts  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  states,  though  the  Northern  states  generally 
present  favorable  conditions  for  the  growth  of  sugar  beets. 

696.  Production  of  Beet  Seed.  Sugar  beets  for  seed 
production  are  selected  by  taking  small  samples  out  of  the 
side  of  the  root  with  a  trier  and  determining  the  percentage 
of  sugar  they  contain.  Only  those  which  show  the  proper 
sugar  content  are  retained  for  planting.  The  hole  made 
by  the  trier  should  be  filled  with  charcoal  or  clay  to  prevent 


MANUFACTURE  OF  BEET  SUGAR  456 

decay.  The  roots  should  be  stored  over  winter  in  sand  in  a 
dry  cellar  or  pit,  tested  the  next  spring  for  sugar  content, 
and  then  planted  in  rows  in  the  field  to  produce  seed.  From 
three  to  five  roots  are  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  seed. 
697.  The  Manufacture  of  Sugar.  After  the  beets  reach 
the  factory,  they  are  washed  and  trimmed,  and  are  then  cut 
into  long  strips  called  "cossettes."  The  juice  is  then 
extracted  from  these  cossettes  by  means  of  hot  water, 
leaving  the  by-product  known  as  beet  pulp.  A  small 
quantity  of  lime  is  then  added  to  the  juice;  the  impurities 


Fig.  140.  A  mill  f9r  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar.     This  factory  has  a 
capacity  of  15,000,000  pounds  of  sugar  a  year. 

combine  with  it  and  solidify,  and  are  removed  by  filtering. 
The  purified  juice  is  then  boiled  down;  when  it  thickens 
sufficiently,  it  is  placed  in  pans  within  a  vacuum  and  boiled 
until  the  sugar  crystallizes.  The  grains  of  sugar  are  now 
separated  from  the  molasses  by  placing  the  "mass-cuite," 
as  the  product  is  called  as  it  comes  from  the  vacuum  pans, 
in  a  centrifugal  machine  lined  with  fine  sieves.  The  whirling 
action  of  the  machine  drives  the  molasses  through  the  sieves 
and  the  sugar  is  retained.  The  wet  sugar  is  heated  to  drive 


456  FIELD  CROPS 

off  the  extra  moisture,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  market, 
while  the  molasses  is  again  boiled  in  the  vacuum  pans  until 
the  sugar  it  contains  crystallizes.  This  second  sugar  or 
mass-cuite  is  dark  in  color,  and  is  mixed  with  fresh  juice  to 
lighten  it.  It  is  then  boiled  again  in  the  vacuum  pans  and 
the  sugar  extracted.  The  molasses  from  the  second  boiling 
is  used  for  feeding  to  stock. 

698.  By-products  and  Their  Value.  Beet  pulp,  the  cos- 
settes  or  strips  of  the  beet  roots  from  which  the  sugar  has  been 
extracted,  contains  about  90  per  cent  of  water  and  10  per 
cent  of  solids,  so  that  it  is  nearly  equal  to  mangels  in  feeding 
value.  The  pulp  is  relished  by  dairy  cows,  and  makes  an 
excellent  substitute  for  corn  silage.  If  it  is  combined  with 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  when  fed  to  beef  cattle  or  sheep,  com- 
paratively little  grain  is  required.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
feeding  period,  grain  should  be  gradually  substituted  for 
the  beet  pulp,  finishing  the  fattening  on  hay  and  grain  with- 
out pulp.  Dried  beet  pulp  is  supplied  by  some  factories; 
this  keeps  much  better  than  wet  pulp  and  is  much  lighter  to 
handle,  one  pound  of  it  being  equal  in  feeding  value  to  about 
eight  pounds  of  wet  pulp.  Beet  molasses  alone  is  not 
palatable,  but  it  is  often  mixed  with  pulp  before  drying,  the 
dried  molasses  beet  pulp  being  about  equal  in  feeding  value 
to  the  dried  pulp  without  the  molasses.  Beet  molasses  is 
also  fed  to  stock  when  it  is  mixed  with  chopped  hay  or 
straw. 

SUGAR  CANE 

599.  History  and  Characteristics.  Sugar  cane,  Sac- 
charum  officinarum,  is  a  perennial  grass  growing  from  8  to  15 
feet  high,  with  solid,  heavy  stalks  like  corn.  The  flowers 
are  in  silky,  plume-like  terminal  panicles,  but  seed  is  seldom 
produced.  The  plant  is  grown  for  the  juice  which  the  stalks 


PRODUCTION  OF  SUGAR  CANE  457 

contain,  and  from  which  sugar  and  molasses  are  made. 
Sugar  cane  has  long  been  cultivated  in  tropical  countries, 
and  until  quite  recent  years  was  the  principal  source-  of 
sugar.  It  is  probably  a  native  of  southeastern  Asia  or  some 
of  the  adjacent  islands. 

600.  Sugar  Content.    The  sweet  or  saccharine  matter  is 
confined  to  the  stalks  and  is  greatest  near  the  middle, 
decreasing  at  the  ends,  but  more  particularly  near  the  top. 
For  this  reason  it  is  most  profitable  to  save  the  upper  portions 
of  the  stalks  for  replanting,  though  sometimes  the  whole 
cane  is  used.    The  saccharine  content  and  the  purity  of  the 
juice  depend  on  the  soil,  the  climate,  and  many  other  factors. 
The  stalks  consist  of  fiber  and  juice.    A  large  proportion  of 
fiber  naturally  means  a  low  sugar  content,  hence  stalks  with 
short  joints  are  undesirable  because  of  the  extra  fiber  they 
contain.    Dry  seasons  also  lower  the  sugar  content  because 
the  joints  are  shorter  and  the  juice  more  scanty.     In  order 
to  insure  a  plentiful  supply  of  water,  the  crop  is  quite  com- 
monly irrigated. 

601.  Countries  Which  Produce  Sugar  Cane.    The  pro- 
duction of  sugar  cane  is  confined  entirely  to  tropical  and  semi- 
tropical  regions,  as  the  crop  requires  a  long,  hot  season  with 
plenty  of  moisture  for  its  best  growth.     The  world's  pro- 
duction of  cane  sugar  averaged  about  7,743,000  long  tons  of 
2,240  pounds  each  for  the  five  years  from  1906  to  1910. 
Of  this  enormous  quantity,  Asia  produced  nearly  half,  or 
3,500,000  tons.    The  leading  Asiatic  countries  in  sugar  pro- 
duction are  British  India  with  2,070,000  tons,  and  Java 
with  1,157,000  tons.     North  America  ranks  next  to  Asia 
in  production  with  3,002,000  tons,  of  which  Cuba  produced 
more  than  half,  or  1,522,000  tons.    The  production  of  the 
continental    United   States    averaged   only   322,000   tons; 
Hawaii  produced  about  456,000  tons,  and  Porto  Rico,  256,000 


458  FIELD  CROPS 

tons.  Various  South  American  countries  contributed  643,- 
000  tons  to  the  world's  total,  Africa  333,000  tons,  and 
Australasia  247,000  tons.  In  the  United  States,  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  from  cane  is  confined  almost  entirely  to 
southern  Louisiana,  though  a  small  quantity  is  produced  in 
Texas.  Sugar  cane  is  grown  in  small  patches  in  all  the 
Southern  states  for  the  production  of  syrup;  it  is  locally 
known  as  "ribbon  cane." 

602.  Propagation.  Sugar  cane  is  propagated  from  sec- 
tions of  the  stalks.  When  these  sections  are  planted,  new 
stalks  grow  from  the  buds  at  the  base  of  each  leaf.  There  is 
considerable  difference  in  the  freedom  with  which  different 
varieties  grow  from  these  buds;  some  grow  from  buds  any- 
where on  the  stalk,  others  only  from  those  near  the  top. 
The  cane  is  usually  cut  into  sections  containing  one  or  more 
buds,  but  sometimes  the  whole  cane  is  planted.  As  the  food 
stored  in  the  stalk  is  used  by  the  young  plant  till  it  becomes 
established,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  stalk  in  as  good  con- 
dition as  possible.  The  canes  of  some  varieties  are  very 
brittle  and  crack  readily  when  cut,  allowing  disease  and 
decay  to  enter,  hence  the  planting  of  the  entire  stalk  to 
avoid  this  loss.  The  tops  are  best  for  propagation  as  they 
grow  most  readily  and  crack  less. 

In  sections  where  frosts  do  not  occur,  the  crop  can  be 
grown  from  the  old  stools  for  several  years  by  splitting  them 
into  sections  with  a  sharp  plow  or  a  tool  specially  devised 
for  the  purpose.  In  the  southern  United  States,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  canes  from  frost  by  cutting  them  in  the 
fall  and  storing  them  over  winter  in  a  moist,  cool  place. 
The  location  should  not  be  wet  enough  to  cause  the  stalks  to 
rot,  nor  cold  enough  so  that  they  will  freeze.  The  stalks 
are  usually  laid  in  piles  and  covered  with  the  leaves  which 
have  been  stripped  from  them.  Sometimes  they  are  laid 


PROPAGATION  OF  SUQAR  CANE         459 

in  windrows  between  the  rows  from  which  they  were  har- 
vested and  covered  by  plowing  furrows  'upon  them.  In  this 
case,  the  leaves  are  left  on.  This  method  of  storing  is 
satisfactory  only  in  favorable  seasons;  in  wet  or  cold  years, 
it  is  pretty  likely  to  result  in  severe  losses  of  the  seed  canes. 
The  seed  canes  should  be  selected  from  a  portion  of  the  field 
where  the  growth  is  good  and  which  is  as  free  as  possible 
from  disease. 

603.  Soils  and  Fertilizers.    Ordinary  good  soil  is  suit- 
able for  the  production  of  sugar  cane.     The  land  should  be 
well  drained,  but  should  be  so  situated  that  it  can  be  irri- 
gated readily.    When  the  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  irrigation 
may  be  unnecessary,  but  it  is  well  to  provide  for  it  in  case 
of  need.    Open  ditches  are  ordinarily  used  for  drainage. 
The  land  should  be  plowed  very  deep,  the  deeper  the  better, 
even  up  to  20  or  24  inches.    Traction  plows  are  quite 
generally  used  in  plowing,  as  the  work  is  too  heavy  for 
horses.    Quite  frequently,  however,  large  mules  are  used 
in  preparing  the  land  and  cultivating  the  crop.    The  demand 
for  the  largest  and  best  mules  on  the  sugar  plantations  is  so 
great  that  they  are  commonly  known  on  the  market  as 
"sugar  mules."    After  the  plowing  is  done,  good  surface 
tillage  is  given  till  planting  time.    Stable  manure  is  the  best 
fertilizer,  but  it  is  not  often  available  in  large  quantities. 
As  most  of  the  potash  and  phosphorus  removed  by  the  crop 
is  returned  in  the  ashes  and  waste  from  the  sugar  mills, 
nitrogen  is  the  only  element  of  fertility  which  it  is  necessary 
to  purchase  in  quantity.     Sugar,  the  only  product  removed, 
is  composed  of  carbon  and  water,  hence  it  takes  nothing 
from  the  land.    Nitrogen  is  lost  in  the  burning  of  the  stalks 
and  leaves. 

604.  Planting.    Sugar  cane  is  planted  by  laying  the 
stalks  in  furrows  from  4  to  6  feet  apart.     If  the  seed  is  in 


460  FIELD  CROPS 

good  condition,  2  feet  apart  in  the  row  is  thick  enough  to 
plant  the  pieces  of  stalks  to  obtain  a  good  stand;  if  its 
condition  is  poor,  thicker  planting  is  necessary.  The  ordi- 
nary method  is  to  lay  the  cane  horizontally  in  the  furrow 
and  cover  it  with  a  small  plow  or  cultivator.  Sometimes 
the  crop  is  planted  in  hills  by  sticking  the  sections  of  stalks 
diagonally  into  the  ground  with  the  upper  end  slightly  above 
the  surface,  while,  if  particularly  quick  germination  is  wanted, 
the  canes  are  planted  upright  with  the  buds  above  the  sur- 
face. 

605.  Cultivation.     Sugar  cane  is  cultivated  frequently 
to  keep  it  clean  of  weeds  and  to  insure  rapid  growth.     As  it  is 
not  planted  in  check  rows,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  do  some 
hand  hoeing  to  remove  the  weeds  within  the  rows.    The 
cultivator  used  is  usually  of  the  toothed  or  shovel  type, 
though  in  recent  years  disk  cultivators  have  come  into 
favor  in  some  sections.     Cultivation  is  continued  till  the 
ground  between  the  rows  is  entirely  shaded  by  the  crop. 

606.  Harvesting.    The  total  sugar  content  of  the  stalk 
increases  up  to  a  certain  stage  of  ripeness,  which  can  only 
be  determined  accurately  by  chemical  analyses  of  sample 
stalks.    Naturally,  it  is  important  to  harvest  when  the 
stalks  contain  the  maximum  quantity  of  sugar;  though 
chemical  analysis  is  more  certain,  the  grower  learns  to 
determine  the  best  date  for  cutting  quite  accurately  by  the 
appearance  of  the  stalk  and  the  stage  of  the  inflorescence. 
For  economy  of  production,  it  is  desirable  to  continue  the 
grinding  of  the  cane  over  as  long  a  period  as  possible.    As 
the  sugar  content  decreases  quite  rapidly  after  the  maximum 
is  reached  and  after  the  cane  is  cut,  planters  extend  the 
season  by  planting  varieties  which  ripen  at  different  times, 
by  planting  on  different  types  of  soil,  or  by  extending  the 
planting  season  over  a  considerable  period. 


CANE  SUGAR  MANUFACTURE.  461 

The  usual  method  of  harvesting  is  to  strip  the  canes  and 
cut  them  off  close  to  the  ground  with  a  knife.  Machines  for 
harvesting  have  been  devised,  but  they  have  not  proven 
satisfactory.  As  the  canes  begin  to  lose  their  sugar  rapidly 
within  24  hours  after  cutting,  they  are  usually  hauled  from 
the  field  to  the  mill  as  soon  as  cut.  Numerous  methods 
of  transportation  are  in  use,  including  boats,  wagons,  and 
tramways.  One  of  the  most  common  methods  in  large  fields 
is  the  use  of  a  light,  movable  track  with  cars  drawn  by  a 
small  steam  engine.  The  cane  is  usually  loaded  upon  wagons 
by  hand;  it  is  then  loaded  into  the  cars  by  the  use  of  a 
derrick  and  is  unloaded  in  the  same  way  at  the  mill. 

607.  Removing  the  Juice.    The  juice  is  removed  from 
the  stalks  by  means  of  heavy  rollers.    The  stalks  are  first 
shredded  by  revolving  cylinders  set  with  numerous  pegs  or 
spikes,  and  then  pass  between  rollers  which  crush  out  about 
75  per  cent  of  the  juice.    They  then  pass  on  to  another  set 
of  rollers,  on  the  way  to  which  they  are  sprayed  with  the 
heated  juice  from  the  third  and  last  set.    The  second  set  of 
rollers  removes  about  10  per  cent  of  the  juice,  and  the  stalks 
then  pass  to  the  third  set;  on  the  way,  the  canes  are  sprayed 
with  hot  water.     The  third  set  of  rollers  crushes  out  about 
5  per  cent  of  the  total  juice.     The  crushed  stalks  (bagasse) 
are  then  carried  on  a  conveyer  to  the  furnaces.     Ordinarily, 
the  bagasse  supplies  sufficient  fuel  to  run  the  mill. 

608.  Making  the  Sugar.    The  methods  of  manufacturing 
cane  sugar  are  not  very  different  from  those  already  described 
for  beet  sugar.     The  juice  is  first  heated  and  then  purified 
by  the  addition  of  milk  of  lime,  after  which  it  is  skimmed  and 
filtered  to  remove  the  solids  which  have  united  with  the  lime. 
This  refuse  is  returned  to  the  fields  as  fertilizer,  as  it  contains 
a  large  part  of  the  phosphorus  and  pet  ash  removed  by  the 
crop.    After  it  has  been  purified,  the  juice  is  concentrated 


462  FIELD  CROPS 

by  boiling  in  a  series  of  vacuum  pans  and  is  finally  crystal- 
lized in  a  larger  pan  of  the  same  kind.  The  sugar  is  then 
dried  and  packed  for  market.  The  by-products  of  manu- 
facture and  the  various  grades  of  sugar,  syrup,  and  molasses 
are  not  materially  different  from  those  made  from  sugar 
beets. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

52.  The  Sugar  Beet. 
93.  Sugar  as  Food. 

162.  pp.  10-15,  Feeding  Value  of  Sugar  Beet  Products. 
251.  pp.  5-7,  American-Grown  Sugar  Beet  Seed. 
262.  pp.  19-23,  Beet  Molasses  and  Beet  Pulp  for  Farm 

Animals. 

267.  pp.  14-17,  Sugar  Beets  on  Alkali  Soils. 
Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 
Hunt's  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  of  America. 
Myrick's  The  American  Sugar  Industry. 
Wilcox  and  Smith's  Farmers'   Cyclopedia   of   Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
FIBER  PLANTS 

609.  Classes  of  Fibers.    The  fibers  we  use  are  obtained 
from  two  general  sources,  animal  and  vegetable.     Only  two 
kinds  of  animal  fiber  are  in  common  use,  wool  and  silk,  but 
there  are  numerous  classes  of  vegetable  fiber.     The  usual 
definition  of  the  word  "fiber"  makes  it  include  not  only  the 
material  used  for  spinning,  but  also  that  used  for  upholster- 
ing, weaving,  and  the  making  of  paper.     A  classification  of 
fiber  according  to  use,  as  made  by  the  Office  of  Fiber  Investi- 
gations of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  includes 
spinning  fibers,  tie  materials,  natural  textures,  brush  fiber, 
plaiting  and  rough  weaving  fiber,  various  forms  of  filling,  and 
paper  material.     Of  these,  the  most  important  are  the  spin- 
ning fiber  and  paper  material.     Spinning  fiber  includes  all 
grades  from  those  made  into  the  finest  thread  to  the  largest 
ropes.    It  is  only  the  class  of  plants  used  principally  for  the 
production  of  spinning  fiber   that  will  be  considered  here, 
though  these  plants  may  also  be  used  for  several  of  the  other 
purposes  mentioned. 

610.  What  Spinning  Fiber  Is.     Fibers,  or  wood  cells,  are 
an  important  part  of  all  plants.     The  young,  growing  parts 
of  plants  are  made  up  of  soft-walled  cells  which  have  little 
strength  and  soon  decay  when  removed  or  when  the  plant 
dies.    The  cells  of  the  older  and  more  permanent  parts  have 
thick,  tough  walls,  and  are  of  two  kinds.     One  kind  is  placed 
end  to  end  without  partitions,  forming  continuous  channels 
or  ducts  through  the  stems  and  other  parts  of  the  plant,  thus 
providing  for  the  movement  of  water  and  plant  food;  the 


464  FIELD  CROPS 

other  is  the  wood  fiber  cells,  which  are  elongated,  spindle- 
shaped,  and  overlap  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  continuous 
bundle.  These  cells  make  up  what  are  known  as  the  fibro- 
vascular  bundles,  which  give  strength  and  stability  to  the 
plant.  The  woody  parts  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  made  up  of 
these  bundles,  as  are  also  the  fibrous  portions  of  the  stems  of 
annual  plants.  Some  plants  produce  simple  cells  on  the 
surface  of  the  seeds  and  other  parts;  these  are  called  surface 
fibers  and  are  sometimes  of  value  for  textile  purposes. 

The  more  important  textile  fibers  are  either  bast  fibers, 
from  the  inner  bark  of  such  plants  as  flax  and  hemp,  or  sur- 
face fibers,  from  cotton.  In  addition,  some  textile  fiber  is 
obtained  from  the  leaves  and  leaf -stems  of  certain  plants,  such 
as  sisal  and  manila  hemp.  By  far  the  most  important  of  the 
plants  which  produce  spinning  fiber  is  cotton.  The  only 
others  which  are  grown  in  the  United  States  to  any  extent 
are  flax  and  hemp,  and  flax  is  grown  much  more  largely  for 
seed  than  for  fiber. 

COTTON 

611.  Origin  and  History.  The  most  important  species 
of  cotton,  the  ordinary  upland  type  grown  in  our  Southern 
states,  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  southeastern  Asia. 
Its  general  cultivation  is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  as  it 
has  been  grown  in  China  for  only  ten  or  twelve  centuries, 
while  its  cultivation  within  the  United  States  dates  back  but 
a  century  and  a  half.  The  importance  of  cotton  as  a  fiber 
plant  was  decidedly  limited,  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
separating  the  fiber,  or  lint,  from  the  seed,  till  the  invention 
of  the  cotton  gin  in  1792  by  Eli  Whitney,  an  American. 
Before  that  time,  it  had  been  grown  to  some  extent  in  Egypt 
and  India,  but  had  never  been  a  serious  competitor  of  wool 
and  flax.  The  Indians  of  tropical  America  cultivated  cotton 


THE  DESCRIPTION  OF   COTTON  465 

at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,but  they  made 
little  use  of  it.  While  it  was  introduced  into  the  Southern 
states  before  the  Revolutionary  War,  its  cultivation  did  not 
become  general  there  till  after  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Since  that  time  the  growth  of  the  industry 
has  been  rapid  (Sec.  617). 

612.  Botanical  Description.  Cotton  belongs  to  the 
Malvaceae  or  mallow  family,  and  is  the  only  member  of 
that  family  which  is  an  important  cultivated  plant.  There 
are  a  number  of  species  of  cotton,  ranging  in  form  from 
bushy  herbs  to  trees.  They  are  all  natives  of  tropical 
regions  and  are  probably  all  perennials,  though  the  cotton 
which  is  grown  in 'the  United  States  has  been  developed  into 
an  annual. 

The  ordinary  upland  cotton,  of  which  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  crop  consists,  is  Gossypium  hirsutum.  It  is  a 
vigorous  annual  plant,  with  a  branching,  upright  stem  and  a 
tap  root  with  numerous  lateral  branches.  The  depth  to 
which  the  tap  root  penetrates  varies  greatly  in  different 
soils;  in  sandy  soils  it  may  reach  a  depth  of  2  feet  or  more, 
while  in  heavy  clay  it  may  be  only  a  few  inches  long  or 
almost  entirely  lacking.  The  laterals  or  feeding  roots  are 
only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface.  The  stem  grows  from 
2  to  6  feet  high,  according  to  the  variety,  the  soil,  and  the 
season.  The  usual  height  is  from  2%  to  3^  feet.  The 
length  and  number  of  the  branches  and  the  length  of  the 
internodes  or  "joints"  depend  on  the  same  factors  as  the 
height  of  the  plant. 

The  leaves  of  cotton  are  alternate,  from  3  to  6  inches  long, 
with  a  width  slightly  less  than  the  length,  the  lower  ones 
heart-shaped,  the  upper  more  or  less  three  or  five  lobed. 
The  flowers  are  large  and  showy,  being  from  3  to  4  inches 
across.  They  are  white  when  they  first  open,  but  turn  rosy 


466  FIELD  CROPS 

pink  on  the  second  day,  so  that  a  field  in  bloom  is  very 
attractive.     Cotton  is   commonly    open-pollinated. 

The  fruit  or  "boll"  is  enclosed  by  leafy  bracts  when 
small,  and  is  then  commonly  known  as  the  "square."  It 
finally  develops  into  a  pointed,  somewhat  egg-shaped  body, 
about  the  size  of  a  small  hen's  egg,  closely  packed  with  seeds 
and  lint.  It  is  composed  of  three  to  five  cells.  When  ripe, 
the  boll  turns  brown  and  the  cells  separate  along  the  central 
axis  and  also  split  down  the  back,  so  that  the  lint  and  seeds 
are  exposed.  The  seeds  which  are  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  long  and  one-half  as  wide,  are  thickly  covered  with  lint 
and  fine  fuzz.  The  lint,  which  is  the  cotton  of  commerce, 
is  from  seven-eighths  to  one  and  one-half  inches  long  in  the 
ordinary  varieties,  the  fuzz  or  linters  one-fourth  inch  or 
less.  The  seed  consists  of  a  thick  seed  coat  or  hull  and  an 
oily  yellowish-white  kernel. 

613.  Other    Species.    Sea    Island    cotton,    Gossypium 
barbadense,  differs  from  the  ordinary  type  in  that  it  grows 
taller,  has  longer  branches,  yellow  flowers,   longer  and  finer 
fiber,  and  seeds  free  from  fuzz.     It  is  grown  in  the  West 
Indies  and  on  the  islands  and  lower  lands  along  the  coast 
of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.     Egyptian  cotton  is  generally 
considered  to  be  a  variety  of    G.  barbadense.    It  has  a  long, 
strong  fiber  and  is  very  similar  in  many  ways  to  Sea  Island 
cotton.     It  is  grown  almost  exclusively  in  Egypt,  but  some 
success  has  recently  been  attained  in  growing  it  under  irri- 
gation in  Arizona  and  southern  California.     India  cotton, 
Gossypium  herbaceum.  has    more    slender   stems  than  the 
ordinary  upland  type,  leaves  with  rounded  lobes,  and  smaller, 
less  pointed  bolls.    The  lint  may  be  white,  yellow,  or  brown. 
Its  cultivation  is  confined  to  southern  Asia. 

614.  Cotton  Fiber  or  Lint.    The  cotton  of  commerce  is 
the  lint  or  surface  fibers  with  which  the  seed  is  covered. 


VARIETIES  OF  COTTON  467 

The  individual  strands  or  fibers  consist  of  single  cells,  ranging 
from  J^  to  2^2  inches  long  in  the  different  varieties.  Each 
fiber  or  cell  is  much  twisted,  a  feature  which  distinguishes 
it  from  other  fibers.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  some- 
times as  many  as  five  hundred  twists  to  the  inch.  The  fiber 
is  very  strong  for  its  size  and  can  be  woven  into  a  very  fine 
thread,  though  not  as  fine  or  as  strong  as  silk.  The  value  of 
the  lint  depends  on  its  color,  cleanness,  length,  and  strength. 
The  importance  of  cotton  as  a  textile  material  is  due  largely 
to  its  cheapness  and  durability. 

Ordinary  varieties  of  upland  cotton  yield  about  1  pound 
of  lint  to  each  3  pounds  of  seed  cotton;  i.  e.,  3  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  will  yield  one-third,  or  33  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in 
lint.  The  usual  variation  is  between  30  and  35  per  cent, 
though  nearly  40  per  cent  is  occasionally  obtained.  Sea 
Island  and  Egyptian  cotton  yield  rather  less,  only  about  30 
per  cent.  Long-staple  upland,  a  type  with  specially  long, 
strong  lint,  yields  less  lint  than  ordinary  upland,  but  the 
value  per  pound  is  much  greater. 

615.  Varieties.  The  varieties  of  cotton  are  numerous, 
probably  as  many  as  two  hundred  names  being  known  in 
the  United  States,  though  not  all  represent  distinct  varieties. 
They  differ  in  length  of  lint,  earliness,  productiveness,  size  of 
boll,  and  other  features.  The  principal  classes  are  the  short- 
limb  or  King  type,  the  big-boll  type,  and  the  long-staple 
type.  The  productiveness  and  earliness  of  cotton  depend 
to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  length  of  the  internodes  and 
the  length  of  the  branches.  The  limbs  appear  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  along  the  main  stem  and  the  flowers  are  pro- 
duced on  the  secondary  branches  which  grow  from  these 
main  limbs.  A  type  of  plant  with  limbs  close  to  the  ground 
and  with  short  joints  is  ordinarily  earlier  and  more  pro- 
ductive than  one  with  fewer  and  longer  limbs. 


468 


FIELD  CROPS 


The  King  type  is  early  in  maturing,  is  short-limbed,  and 
produces  small  bolls.  The  big-boll  type  grows  larger  and 
ranker,  the  bolls  are  larger,  and  the  crop  is  later  in  maturing. 
Long-staple  cotton  produces  uniformly  longer  and  more  valu- 
able lint  than  the  ordinary  upland  varieties.  The  small- 
boiled  cottons  pick  eas- 
ily but  are  readily  dam- 
aged by  storms,  as  the 
outer  covering  of  the 
boll,  the  "  burr,"  is  thin 
and  curls  backward  as 
the  boll  opens,  exposing 
the  seed  cotton  and  giv- 
ing it  little  support.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  burr 
of  the  big-boll  type  re- 
mains flat  and  supports 
the  seed  cotton  so  that 
it  is  not  easily  dis- 
lodged. Among  the  bet- 
ter known  varieties  of  the  small-boll  type  are  the  Welborn, 
Peterkin,  and  King,  while  the  big-boll  or  storm-proof  type 
includes  Russell,  Truitt,  Texas  Stormproof,  and  Jones  Im- 
proved. The  best-known  of  the  long-staple  varieties  are 
Allen,  Griffin,  and  Cook. 

616.  Importance  of  the  Crop.  Cotton  is  not  only  the 
most  important  textile  plant  of  the  world,  but  it  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  world's  crops,  for  it  furnishes  many 
valuable  products  in  addition  to  the  lint  from  which  cotton 
fabrics  are  made.  The  world's  production  of  cotton  is  about 
20,000,000  bales  or  about  9,500,000,000  pounds  of  lint 
annually.  The  average  annual  production  for  the  five  years 
from  1905  to  1909  was  19,782,825  bales,  of  which  nearly 


Fig.  141.    An  open  cotton  boll  ready 
for  picking. 


STATISTICS  OF  COTTON  PRODUCTION  469 

three  -fifths  were  produced  in  North  America,  more  than 
three-tenths  in  Asia,  and  about  one-fourteenth  in  Africa. 
The  average  annual  production  for  this  period  in  bales  of  500 
pounds  gross  or  478  pounds  net  weight  was  as  follows: 
North  America,  11,812,650  bales;  South  America,  418,- 
505  bales;  Europe,  24,309  bales;  Asia,  6,215,747  bales; 
Africa,  1,347,646  bales;  and  Oceanica,  221  bales. 

Practically  the  entire  crop  of  North  America  was  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States,  the  average  annual  production 
for  the  five  years  being  11,640,551  bales.  India  ranks  next 
to  the  United  States  in  the  production  of  cotton,  with  a  crop 
of  4,058,000  bales;  Egypt  follows  with  1,317,585  bales,  and 
China  with  1,200,000  bales.  No  other  country  is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  production  of  cotton. 

617.  Production  in  the  United  States.  The  increase  in 
the  production  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  since  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  one  of  our  most 
remarkable  records  of  progress.  There  has  been  a  continual 
increase  in  the  production  of  cotton  since  1800,  except  in 
the  decade  from  1861  to  1870,  when  the  war  between  the 
states  practically  demoralized  the  cotton  industry  of  the 
South.  The  crop  of  1864  was  less  than  300,000  bales,  though 
five  years  previous  the  production  reached  4,500,000  bales. 
In  the  decade  from  1870  to  1880  there  was  a  gradual  recovery 
in  the  industry,  the  average  production  being  more  than 
4,000,000  bales.  Since  then,  the  increase  has  been  about 
2,500,000  bales  annually  for  each  decade. 

Figure  142  shows  that  the  production  of  cotton  is  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  the  states  in  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  United  States.  In  ten  of  these  states,  the 
average  area  in  cotton  from  1902  to  1911  was  almost  30,000,- 
000  acres.  The  annual  production  for  the  United  States  was 
11,861,646  bales,  and  the  average  annual  value  of  the  crop 


470  FIELD  CROPS 

about  $600,000,000.  Nearly  three-tenths  of  the  cotton 
acreage  of  the  United  States  is  in  Texas.  This  state  produced 
more  than  one-fourth  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  country  and 
more  than  15  per  cent  of  that  of  the  entire  world.  Georgia, 

**.««* 


Fig.  142.     Percentage  of  the  cotton  crop  produced  in  each    of  the_states  of 
largest  production,   1902-1911. 

Mississippi,  Alabama,  and  South  Carolina  ranked  next  in 
the  order  named.  In  addition  to  the  states  shown  in  this 
figure,  cotton  is  produced  in  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Florida, 
Missouri,  and  California. 

TEXAS  ••^^••••••^••••^^^••^•••i  36.  01  % 

GA.     mmmmmmmmmm***mam*maa*mi^^mmmmmi^^ 


MISS.  MMHMBMBBi^^^^^MHBM^M^HHHHB  38.87% 
ALA.    •••••••«•••••••••••••«•••«•••  3  £.<?<?% 

S.C.      ^••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••H  40.96% 

ARK.  mm*mmmmamm^mmmmmmm*mmm  27.74% 
OK  LA  .  m^^mm^^m^m  J3.se  %    , 

LA.     w^^mmm^m^mmm^^*^mmmmm 


Fig.  143.  Percentage  of  improved  farm  land  annually  planted  to  cotton  in  the 
states  of  largest  production  and  in  the   United  States,   1902-1911. 

The  importance  of  the  crop  in  the  various  states  is  best 
shown  by  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  143).  This 
diagram  shows  the  proportion  of  the  improved  farm  area  in 
the  various  states  which  is  annually  planted  to  cotton.  More 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  COTTON  471 

than  two-fifths  of  the  improved  land  in  farms  in  South  Caro- 
lina and  nearly  two-fifths  of  that  in  Texas,  Georgia,  Alabama,  * 
and  Mississippi  are  devoted  to  this  crop.  Nearly  7  per  cent 
of  the  improved  farm  land  in  the  United  States  is  planted 
to  cotton,  though  its  production  is  practically  confined  to 
ten  states.  The  total  acreage  of  oats,  a  crop  which  is  grown 
to  some  extent  in  every  state,  is  only  a  little  larger  than  that 
of  cotton,  while  the  acreage  in  wheat  is  about  one  and  one- 
half  times  the  cotton  acreage.  Corn  is  grown  on  more  than 
three  times  as  much  land  as  cotton. 

The  average  annual  yield  per  acre  for  the  entire  United 
States  for  the  period  from  1902  to  1911  was  185.7  pounds. 
The  lowest  acre  yield,  166.4  pounds,  was  that  of  Texas, 
while  the  highest  yield  in  the  ten  important  states  was 
shown  by  North  Carolina,  225.4  pounds.  Of  the  annual 
crop  of  nearly  12,000,000  bales,  about  five-eighths  is 
exported. 

618.  Soils  Adapted  to  Cotton.    The  best  crops  of  cotton 
are  produced  on  the  rich  alluvial  loams  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  the  heavy  clay  loams  of  Texas.     However,  cotton 
grows  well  on  a  wide  variety  of  soils,  from  the  sands  and  light 
loams  of  the  Carolina  coast  to  the  closest  and  stickiest  of 
clay  soils.     Its  growth  and  productiveness  are  largely  influ- 
enced by  the  physical  character  of  the  soil  and  its  fertility, 
and  by  the  available  supply  of  moisture.     On  rich,  wet  land 
a  very  heavy  growth  of  stalks  and  leaves  is  produced,  often 
at  the  expense  of  seed  production,  so  that  the  yield  of  lint 
may  be  less  than  on  less  fertile  or  on  drier  land.      On  the 
average,  the  largest  yields  of  lint  are  produced  on  clay  and 
alluvial  loams  with  a  moderate  rainfall. 

619.  Fertilizers  and  Manures.    Because  cotton  is  grown 
on  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  cultivated  land  of  the  Southern 
states  and  because  no  regular  rotation  is  generally  followed, 


472  FIELD  CROPS 

this  crop  is  often  planted  on  the  same  field  for  several  years 
'in  succession.  This  practice,  however,  is  much  less  com- 
mon now  than  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  Because  of  the  con- 
stant growing  of  the  same  crop  on  the  land  with  little  or  no 
effort  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter  and  plant 
food,  many  of  the  fields  are  now  in  a  more  or  less  exhausted 
condition,  so  that  they  must  be  highly  fertilized  to  produce 
a  good  crop.  Whenever  possible,  a  regular  rotation  should 
be  followed  which  includes  a  leguminous  crop  to  supply 
vegetable  matter  rich  in  nitrogen.  A  number  of  excellent 
crops  for  this  purpose  are  available,  including  the  cowpea, 
soy  bean,  crimson  clover,  and  velvet  bean.  Increasing  the 
supply  of  vegetable  matter  and  adopting  a  proper  system  of 
crop  rotation  are  the  most  effective  methods  of  increasing 
cotton  yields. 

When  the  nitrogen  is  supplied  by  a  leguminous  crop  which 
precedes  cotton,  less  of  this  element  need  be  added  m  the 
form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  use  of  a  complete  fer- 
tilizer is  advised  in  all  cases  when  the  soil  shows  a  tendency 
to  become  exhausted  and  when  leguminous  crops  are  not 
grown.  Cotton  seed  was  formerly  largely  used,  but  the 
ready  market  for  it  afforded  by  the  oil  mills  has  led  to  the 
substitution  of  other  materials.  As  the  oil  in  the  seed  is  of 
no  value  as  a  fertilizer,  the  use  of  whole  seed  for  this  purpose 
is  wasteful.  At  the  present  time,  the  most  popular  ferti- 
lizing material  is  cotton-seed  meal,  as  it  contains  a  good 
supply  of  nitrogen  and  some  potash  and  phosphoric  acid. 
It  should  generally  be  supplemented  with  acid  phosphate 
and  muriate  of  potash,  while  a  small  quantity  of  nitrate  of 
soda  helps  the  early  growth  of  the  crop. 

Barnyard  manure  is  used  to  some  extent  for  cotton,  but 
the  available  supply  is  usually  limited,  as  the  number  of 
live  stock  kept  on  Southern  farms  is  relatively  small  and  those 


PLANTING   COTTON  473 

that  are  kept  are  confined  for  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
year,  so  that  most  of  the  manure  is  dropped  on  the  pastures. 

620.  Preparation  of  the  Land.  The  methods  of  prepar- 
ing the  land  for  cotton  vary  somewhat  with  different  soils 
and  in  different  sections,  but  the  general  plan  is  about  as 
follows:  The  land  is  " bedded "  early  in  the  spring,  i.  e., 
narrow  beds  are  made  by  throwing  together  two  furrows  with 
a  small  plow,  alternating  with  narrow  unplowed  strips. 
Where  the  land  was  in  cotton  or  corn  the  previous  year,  the 
"bed"  is  made  between  the  old  rows.  The  stalks  are  either 
cut  up  with  a  stalk  cutter  or  are  gathered  and  burned. 
Bedding  helps  to  aerate  and  warm  the  soil  and  the  furrows 
give  drainage,  so  that  it  is  advisable  on  poorly-drained  land. 
Later,  but  before  planting  time,  additional  furrows  are 
thrown  upon  these  beds  from  either  side,  but  the  entire 
middle  is  sometimes  not  broken  out  till  the  first  cultivation. 

When  commercial  fertilizer  is  applied,  it  is  either  sown 
broadcast  on  the  field  before  bedding,  or  it  is  distributed 
along  the  rows  and  the  beds  thrown  on  it  a  week  or  ten  days 
before  planting.  The  latter  practice  is  the  more  common 
one.  It  is  sometimes  sown  in  the  furrows  at  the  time  of 
planting,  though  some  of  the  fertilizers  which  are  used  are 
likely  to  injure  the  seed  if  they  come  in  contact  with  it. 
Land  is  not  always  plowed  before  it  is  planted  to  cotton, 
though  in  recent  years  the  practice  of  plowing  and  planting 
flat  as  corn  is  commonly  planted  has  come  into  use  in  some 
sections.  Fall  plowing  is  frequently  not  advisable,  on 
account  of  the  loss  from  leaching  or  erosion.  The  growing  of 
a  winter  cover  crop  on  cotton  lands  is  an  excellent  practice. 
When  a  cover  crop  such  as  bur  clover  or  vetch  is  grown,  the 
land  is  plowed  early  in  the  spring  and  the  cotton  is  planted 
either  without  bedding  or  low  beds  are  made  a  few  days 
before  planting.  In  nearly  all  cases,  larger  yields  are 


474  FIELD  CROPS 

obtained  by  plowing  the  land  from  6  to  8  inches  deep  early 
in  the  spring  and  harrowing  and  disking  it  every  few  days 
till  planting  time  than  by  the  methods  in  common  use. 

621.  Planting.  The  best  grade  of  cotton  seed  which  can 
be  obtained  should  be  used  for  planting.  Good,  heavy  seed 
is  just  as  important  a  factor  in  obtaining  good  yields  of  cotton 
as  it  is  in  corn  or  the  small  grains.  The  ordinary  practice 
of  taking  the  regular  run  of  cotton  seed  as  it  comes  from  the 
gin,  storing  it  with  little  or  no  attention  over  winter,  and  then 
planting  heavily  in  the  spring  to  assure  a  stand,  is  a  bad  one. 
While  the  extra  seed  has  some  value  as  a  fertilizer,  it  is  much 
more  profitable  to  sell  it  and  to  use  cotton-seed  meal  or  some 
other  fertilizer  in  its  place. 

Instead  of  taking  the  "gin-run"  of  seed  for  planting, 
the  best  portion  of  the  field  should  be  picked  by  itself  each 
fall,  preferably  at  the  earlier  pickings.  This  cotton  should 
be  ginned  separately  and  the  seed  brought  back  to  the  farm 
for  planting  the  following  spring.  The  seed  should  be  spread 
out  in  a  thin  layer  to  dry,  as  it  heats  readily  when  green  and 
its  germination  is  easily  destroyed.  After  it  is  dry,  it  may  be 
sacked  or  piled  in  bulk  if  it  is  kept  in  a  dry  place.  It  should 
be  protected  from  the  weather  and  from  mice  and  rats.  The 
quantity  of  seed  which  is  now  generally  planted  ranges  from 
}^  to  1  bushel  to  the  acre.  Up  to  a  few  years  ago,  it  was  the 
common  practice  to  plant  as  much  as  2  or  3  bushels  to  the 
acre,  but  the  demand  for  the  seed  at  the  oil  mills  has  led  to 
the  discontinuance  of  this  waste. 

The  usual  method  of  planting  is  to  open  a  furrow  in  the 
middle  of  the  bed  with  a  small  plow  and  to  distribute  the 
seed  evenly  in  this  furrow  with  a  one-row  planter.  Attempts 
to  plant  cotton  seed  in  hills  have  not  been  very  successful, 
as  the  fuzz  on  the  seeds  causes  them  to  stick  together  and 
prevents  uniform  dropping.  Some  attempts  have  been  made 


CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON  475 

to  remove  this  difficulty  by  coating  the  seed  with  flour  paste. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  blow  out  the  light  seed  with  the 
fanning  mill  and  to  plant  with  the  corn  planter.  It  is 
probable  that  the  plan  of  planting  in  hills  as  corn  is  usually 
planted  will  become  much  more  general  in  the  next  few  years. 
The  distance  between  the  rows  ranges  from  2J/£  to  5  feet, 
according  to  the  variety  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  A 
small,  early  variety  of  the  King  type  on  sandy  soil  may  be 
planted  much  closer  than  one  of  the  big-boll  type  on  loam  or 
clay  soils.  The  seed  is  covered  to  a  depth  of  from  1  to  3 
inches,  depending  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The 
crop  is  planted  during  April  and  the  first  two  weeks  of  May. 

622.  Cultivation.  The  ordinary  method  of  cultivation 
has  been  to  wait  till  the  plants  reach  a  height  of  2  or  3  inches 
and  then  to  break  out  the  middles  of  the  rows,  which  have 
previously  been  unplowed.  A  little  later,  the  field  is  "  barred 
off"  by  running  a  small  plow  or  broad  shovel  close  to  the 
row  and  throwing  the  earth  away  from  it.  About  this  time, 
the  plants  are  thinned  with  the  hoe  to  the  proper  distance  in 
the  rows,  this  process  being  known  as  "chopping  out." 
The  distance  between  the  plants  varies  with  the  width  of 
the  rows  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Where  the  plants 
make  only  a  small  growth,  they  should  be  much  closer 
together  than  where  the  growth  is  strong  and  rank.  The 
usual  distance  between  the  plants  is  from  1  to  2  feet.  Later 
cultivation  is  usually  shallow,  for  deep  plowing  cuts  off  many 
of  the  feeding  roots.  In  some  cases,  however,  particularly 
in  weedy  fields,  the  "  turning  plow,"  a  small  moldboard  plow, 
is  used  for  some  of  these  later  cultivations,  often  with  dis- 
astrous results  to  the  crop.  From  three  to  five  cultivations 
and  from  one  to  three  hoeings  are  ordinarily  given. 

Better  cultivation  is  now  generally  given  to  the  cotton 
crop  than  was  the  case  a  few  years  ago.  Two-horse  culti- 


476 


FIELD  CROPS 


vators  are  replacing  the  one-horse  ones  so  long  in  use,  and 
the  harrow  and  the  weeder  are  more  generally  used  early  in 
the  season.  These  tools  pull  out  some  of  the  young  plants, 
but  usually  they  are  much  thicker  than  is  necessary  and  those 
that  are  pulled  out  with  the  harrow  will  not  have  to  be  hoed 
out  later.  At  the  same  time  large  numbers  of  young  weed 
and  grass  plants  are  killed,  and  the  labor  of  later  cultivations 


Fig.  144.  Field  of  cotton  ready  for  picking.     Usually  the  first  picking  is  made 
before  so  much  of  the  crop  has  opened. 

is  lessened.  Thin  planting  obviates  much  of  the  work  of 
chopping  out,  and  the  frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  makes 
hand  hoeing  largely  unnecessary.  Shallow  cultivation  with 
flat  blades  or  with  small  shovels  is  taking  the  place  of  deeper 
cultivation  with  large  shovels  or  the  turning  plow.  Culti- 
vation is  now  continued  practically  up  to  the  time  the  bolls 
begin  to  open.  In  this  way,  the  crop  is  kept  growing 


THE  PICKING  OF  COTTON  477 

throughout  the  season,  weeds  are  prevented  from  seeding, 
and  the  supply  of  moisture  is  maintained. 

623.  Picking.    As  soon  as  a  considerable  number  of  the 
bolls  have  opened,  picking  is  begun.     This  operation  usually 
begins  in  the  extreme  south  about  August  15,  while  farther 
north  it  may  be  delayed  till  September  15.     Picking  must 
be  done  by  hand,  as  no  satisfactory  machine  for  the  purpose 
has  yet  been  produced,  though  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  invent  such  a  boon  to  the  cotton  producer.     The 
main  difficulty  with  a  mechanical  picker  is  that  the  crop 
ripens  over  a  considerable  period  of  time  and  all  of  it  can  not 
be  picked  at  once.    The  mechanical  picker  injures  the  plants 
if  it  is  used  when  they  are  yet  growing,  while  if  the  cotton  is 
left  in  the  field  till  the  end  of  the  season  much  of  it  will  be 
damaged  by  the  weather. 

When  the  boll  opens,  the  lint  is  easily  dislodged  by  a 
slight  pull  with  the  hand.  Men,  women,  and  children  are 
all  engaged  in  the  work  of  cotton  picking.  The  lint  is  placed 
in  sacks  or  baskets  as  it  is  picked,  and  as  these  are  filled  they 
are  emptied  into  wagons  to  be  hauled  to  the  gin.  In  order 
to  gather  all  the  crop  in  the  best  shape,  three  pickings  are 
usually  made,  the  first  as  soon  as  the  earlier  bolls  open,  the 
second  when  the  majority  of  the  bolls  are  ripe,  and  the  third 
after  frost  has  stopped  further  growth.  The  number  of 
pickings  may  be  reduced  to  two  or  may  be  increased,  accord- 
ing to  the  locality  and  the  season.  The  bulk  of  the  crop  is 
usually  gathered  at  the  second  picking.  Picking  is  the  most 
expensive  part  of  cotton  production,  and  the  invention  of  a 
satisfactory  machine  to  do  this  work  would  mean  almost  as 
much  to  the  industry  as  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin. 

624.  Ginning.    The   next   process   after   the   cotton   is 
picked  is  to  separate  the  seed  from  the  lint.     The  seed  cotton 
is  hauled  to  the  ginnery,  where  the  lint  is  removed  from  the 


478  FIELD  CROPS 

seed  and  is  packed  into  bales.  The  type  of  gin  which  is  in 
common  use,  except  in  the  Sea  Island  district,  is  the  saw  gin, 
which  was  invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1793,  and  has  since 
been  improved  by  many  other  inventors.  The  seed  cotton 
is  fed  into  a  hopper  at  the  bottom  of  which  are  many  revolv- 
ing saws  mounted  on  a  cylinder.  These  saws  tear  the  lint 
from  the  seed,  the  seed  dropping  down  into  a  chute  and  the 
lint  being  removed  from  the  saws  by  sets  of  brushes  on 
another  revolving  cylinder.  The  lint  is  then  pressed  against 
a  board  by  means  of  an  air  blast  and  passes  from  the  gin  in 
a  continuous  sheet.  It  is  taken  automatically  to  the  press, 
where  it  is  packed  by  means  of  hydraulic  or  steam  power 
into  a  compact  bale. 

The  seed  cotton  is  usually  drawn  from  the  wagon  to  the 
gins  by  suction  and  automatically  divided  among  the  several 
machines  with  which  each  ginnery  is  provided.  From  these, 
the  lint  cotton  is  all  gathered  into  one  bale,  while  the  seed  is 
carried  to  an  elevator,  so  that  in  a  very  few  minutes  a  wagon 
load  of  seed  cotton  can  be  ginned,  the  lint  cotton  baled  and 
returned  to  the  farmer's  wagon,  and  the  seed  delivered  to 
him  from  the  elevator.  During  this  process,  practically  no 
hand  work  is  necessary.  Cotton  may  be  seriously  damaged 
if  the  gin  is  run  at  too  high  a  rate  of  speed  or  if  the  cotton  is 
damp  when  ginned.  Sea  Island  cotton  is  ginned  in  what  is 
known  as  the  roller  gin,  as  the  fiber  is  seriously  damaged  by 
the  ordinary  type  of  saw  gin. 

625.  The  Cotton  Bale.  The  standard  square  bale  of 
cotton  weighs  about  500  pounds  gross,  with  a  net  weight  of 
478  pounds  of  lint.  The  difference  of  22  pounds  consists  of 
"  bagging  and  ties,"  i.  e.,  the  bagging  with  which  the  bale  is 
wrapped  and  the  iron  bands  by  which  it  is  held  in  shape. 
The  general  run  of  cotton  bales  averages  a  little  more  than 
500  pounds  in  weight.  A  bale  of  cotton  is  a  compact  mass 


MARKETING    COTTON  479 

of  lint  cotton  about  54  inches  long,  44  inches  wide,  and  24 
inches  thick.  Round  bales  averaging  250  pounds  in  weight 
are  sometimes  made.  These  are  more  compact  than  the 
square  bale  and  are  made  with  less  injury  to  the  fiber,  as  the 
sheet  of  lint  is  wound  directly  upon  a  cylinder  as  it  comes  from 
the  gin.  Before  cotton  is  shipped  any  considerable  distance, 
the  square  bale  is  compressed  to  reduce  the  bulk,  the  42  to  46 
inches  of  width  being  reduced  to  20  inches.  The  other 
dimensions  are  not  changed.  In  this  form,  the  cotton  of  the 
South  is  shipped  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 

626.  Marketing.    Cotton  is  usually  sold  to  local  buyers 
or  to  representatives  of  large  consumers  of  the  lint.    The 
sales  are  usually  for  cash,  and  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  sold 
as  soon  as  it  is  ginned.     It  is  then  stored  in  warehouses 
awaiting  shipment,  is  shipped  at  once  to  the  mills,  or,  if 
purchased  for  export,  is  forwarded  to  one  of  the  coast  cities. 
Galveston,  Texas;  New  Orleans,  Louisiana;  and  Savannah, 
Georgia,  are  among  the  principal  export  cities.     The  grower 
may,  however,  store  his  cotton  in  a  warehouse  to  be  sold  at 
some  future  time  or  may  return  it  to  his  farm.     The  seed  is 
either  returned  to  him  from  the  ginnery  or  purchased  by  the 
ginner,  who  in  turn  sells  it  to  an  agent  of  the  oil  mill. 

627.  Market  Grades.    The  price  of  cotton  is  governed 
largely  by  its  commercial  grade,  determined  by  a  sample 
from  the  surface  of  the  bale.    The  grades  depend  on  the 
length  and  strength  of  the  staple  and  upon  its  uniformity. 
The  highest  grade  is  known  as  "fair,"  while  the  lowest  is 
"ordinary."    Between  these  two  there  are  five  other  grades, 
known  as  middling  fair,  good  middling,  middling,  low  mid- 
dling, and  good  ordinary.     Between  each  two  of  these  grades 
are  still  others,  called  by  certain  modifications  of  the  names 
given.    Cleanliness  and  weather  injury  often  have  as  much 
influence  on  cotton  prices  as  the  actual  grade  of  the  cotton. 


480  FIELD  CROPS 

"Fair"  cotton  is  usually  about  one-fourth  higher  in  price 
than  "  ordinary." 

628.  Prices.    The   relative   prices   of   different   lots   of 
cotton  are  based  on  the  market  grades,  but  the  price  itself 
is  fixed  by  the  supply  and  demand,  and  also  to  some  extent 
by  market  manipulations.    The  price  usually  ranges  between 
8  and  15  cents  a  pound,  though  cotton  has  sold  below  5 
cents.     The  lowest  price  of  middling  upland  at  Galveston, 
Texas,  for  the  ten  years  from  1901  to  1910  was  6.625  cents, 
and  the  highest  price,  16  cents.     The  average  of  the  highest 
yearly  prices  for  the  ten  years  was  slightly  less  than  13  cents, 
while  the  average  of  the  lowest  prices  was  8.8  cents.     The 
prices  at  the  other  large  markets  usually  rule  slightly  higher 
than  those  at  Galveston. 

629.  Exports  and  Imports.     The  average  annual  exporta- 
tion of  cotton  for  the  ten  years  from  1900  to  1909  was 
7,542,074  bales,  valued  at  $387,996,516.     Of  this,   about 
30,000  bales  were  Sea  Island  cotton,  the  remainder  being 
upland.     During  this  period,  the  annual  imports  of  cotton 
averaged  only  151,080  bales,  with  a  value  of  $11,808,939, 
leaving  a  balance  in  favor  of  the  United  States  of  $376,187,- 
577. 

630.  Insect  Pests.     The  most  important  insects  which 
attack  the  cotton  crop  are  the  boll  weevil  and  the  bollworm, 
though  a  host  of  others  do  more  or  less  damage.     The  boll 
weevil  was  first  reported  in  extreme  southern  Texas  in  1892, 
though  it  had  been  known  in  Mexico  for  many  years.     Since 
then  it  has  spread  through  the  cotton  belt  steadily,  the 
advance  northward  and  eastward  being  at  the  rate  of  from 
forty  to  fifty  miles  a  year.     The  region  now  infested  includes 
practically  all  of  Texas  where  cotton  is  grown,  southern 
Oklahoma,  southern  Arkansas,  and  all  of  Louisiana  and 
Mississippi.    At  its  present  rate  o^  progress,  it  will  probably 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  COTTON  481 

be  common  throughout  the  cotton  belt  in  fifteen  or  twenty 
years.  The  boll  weevil  is  a  grayish  or  reddish-brown  insect 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
squares  soon  after  the  blossoms  fall.  The  egg  hatches  and 
the  rapidly-growing  larva  eats  the  contents  of  the  young  boll. 
In  about  ten  days,  it  turns  into  a  pupa  and  a  few  days  later 
emerges  as  a  weevil.  This  insect  is  very  destructive  to  the 
cotton  crop  when  it  first  appears  in  a  district,  but  its  ravages 
decrease  as  farmers  learn  better  how  to  control  it.  The  most 
effective  methods  are  the  rotation  of  crops,  frequent  culti- 
vation to  knock  off  and  bury  the  infested  squares,  and  the 
early  planting  of  early  varieties,  as  the  insects  do  not  become 
numerous  till  late  in  the  season. 

The  bollworm  is  the  larval  stage  of  a  moth  which  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  cotton  and  other  plants. 
The  worm  eats  the  leaves  of  the  cotton  and  also  buries  itself 
in  the  half-grown  boll,  eating  the  young  seeds.  The  methods 
recommended  for  the  destruction  of  the  boll  weevil  are  also 
effective  with  the  bollworm.  In  addition,  poisoning  with 
Paris  green  and  the  use  of  trap  crops  are  recommended.  As 
the  moths  lay  their  eggs  on  the  most  readily  available  food 
plants,  many  of  the  worms  may  be  destroyed  early  in  the 
season  by  planting  occasional  rows  of  corn  through  the  cotton 
field  and  cutting  and  destroying  these  when  the  worms 
become  numerous. 

631.  Diseases.  Of  the  numerous  diseases  of  cotton  which 
occur  in  various  sections  of  the  South,  perhaps  the  most 
important  are  cotton  wilt  and  root  rot.  Cotton  wilt  is 
somewhat  similar  to  flax  wilt.  The  fungus  enters  the  young 
plant  through  the  root  hairs,  and  its  mycelium  fills  the  cells 
of  the  plant,  preventing  it  from  obtaining  water.  The  plants 
become  dwarfed,  turn  yellow,  and  usually  die.  As  in  flax, 
certain  plants  seem  to  be  resistant  to  the  disease;  if  seed  is 

13 


482  FIELD  CROPS 

saved  from  these,  resistant  strains  may  be  produced.  This 
disease  is  confined  to  the  southeastern  part  of  the  cotton 
belt.  In  Texas,  particularly  on  the  heavier  lands,  root  rot 
is  common.  This  disease  attacks  the  roots  of  all  tap- 
rooted  plants,  including  cotton,  the  legumes,  and  many 
kinds  of  fruit  trees.  The  most  effective  remedies  in  cotton 
fields  are  rotation  of  crops  and  deep  fall  plowing.  The 
disease  does  not  affect  corn,  the  small  grains,  or  grasses. 

632.  The  Uses  of  the  Lint.    The  lint  of  cotton  is  the  most 
important  of  the  world's  fibers,  furnishing  clothing  for  a  very 
large  part  of  all  the  people.     It  is  the  largest  item  in  our 
world  trade,  and  the  production  of  cotton  goods  is  the  largest 
of  manufacturing  enterprises.     The  lint  is  first  spun    into 
thread  or  yarn  and  is  then  woven  into  all  manner  of  fabrics. 
Upland  cotton  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  large  variety 
of  cloths,  either  alone  or  in  mixtures  with  wool,  flax,  or  silk. 
Thread  is  largely  made  from  long  staple  upland,  while  Sea 
Island  cotton  is  used  for  making  the  finer  threads  and 
fabrics. 

633.  Uses  of  the  Seed.     Cotton  seed  was  for  many  years 
thrown  away  as  worthless  or  was  used  only  as  a  fertilizer. 
During  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  the  development  of  the 
cotton-seed  oil  industry  has  furnished  a  ready  market  for  the 
seed,  and  it  is  now  a  valuable  part  of  the  crop.     The  whole 
seed  is  still  used  to  some  extent  as  a  feed  or  fertilizer,  but 
most  of  it  goes  to  the  oil  mills.     The  products  from  the  seed 
are  numerous,  the  primary  ones  being  the  linters,  hulls,  and 
meats.     "Linters"  is  the  short  lint  or  fuzz  which  covers  the 
seed  and  which  is  not  removed  in  ginning.     This  fuzz  is 
removed  by  a  special  ginning  process  and  used  for  cotton 
batting,  carpets,  and  coarse  twine.     The  next  process  is  to 
remove  the  hulls,  as  these  would  absorb  the  oil.     These  hulls 
have  some  value  as  fuel  and  fertilizer,  and  are  also  used  for 


THE  USES  OF  COTTON  483 

feeding  to  cattle.  About  850  pounds  of  hulls  are  obtained 
from  a  ton  of  whole  seed.  The  meats  comprise  about  1,100 
pounds  of  each  ton  of  seed. 

After  the  hulls  are  removed,  the  meats  are  cooked  for 
about  twenty  minutes  to  melt  the  oil  and  to  drive  off  a  part 
of  the  water.  The  oil  is  then  extracted  under  pressure,  a  ton 
of  seed  yielding  about  300  pounds,  or  40  gallons,  of  crude  oil. 
A  large  number  of  different  grades  of  oil  are  obtained  by 
various  processes  of  refining  and  filtering,  and  from  these 
many  products  and  compounds  are  made.  Cotton-seed  oil 
is  used  for  cooking,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
animal  fats,  as  lard  and  butter  substitutes  such  as  cottolene 
and  oleomargarine.  Some  of  the  grades  of  oil  are  used  as 
substitutes  for  olive  and  peanut  oils  and  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, while  others  are  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soaps.  The  meats  from  which  the  oil  has  been  pressed  are 
ground  into  meal,  this  product  being  known  as  cotton-seed 
meal. 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  utilized  as  a  fertilizer  and  as  a  feed 
for  live  stock.  As  a  fertilizer,  it  is  rich  in  nitrogen  and 
also  contains  some  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  com- 
monly used  in  the  fertilization  of  all  crops  throughout  the 
South.  As  a  stock  feed,  it  is  most  largely  fed  to  cattle  and 
sheep.  It  contains  37.6  per  cent  of  digestible  protein  and 
9.6  per  cent  of  fat,  so  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  concentrated 
feeds.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  largely  exported,  it  being  in 
much  favor  among  dairymen  and  other  feeders  of  live  stock 
in  England  and  elsewhere. 

634.  Uses  of  the  Stalks.  Little  use  has  yet  been  made 
of  the  stalks  of  cotton,  though  cattle  will  eat  the  young  bolls, 
leaves,  and  smaller  stems  if  turned  into  the  field  after  the 
crop  is  picked.  The  stalks  may  be  cut  with  a  stalk  cutter 
and  plowed  under  or  they  may  be  burned.  Plowing  them 


484  FIELD  CROPS 

under  is  the  better  practice,  since  they  are  of  some  value  for 
both  vegetable  matter  and  fertilizer.  Some  successful 
attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  paper  from  cotton 
stalks  and  from  cotton-seed  hulls,  but  the  industry  has  not 
yet  been  developed  on  a  commercial  scale.  With  the  rapid 
depletion  of  our  supply  of  wood  pulp,  it  is  probable  that 
cotton  and  corn  stalks  will  soon  be  put  to  this  use. 

FLAX 

635.  Fiber  Flax.    The  cultivation  of  this  crop  has  already 
been  discussed  (page  248).     In  the  United  States,  flax  is 
grown  almost  entirely  as  a  grain  crop,  and  the  use  of  the  straw 
for  fiber  is  incidental.    It  is  largely  grown  for  the  production 
of  fiber  in  some  portions  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Russia. 
It  ranks  next  to  cotton  in  importance  among  vegetable  fibers, 
the  annual  production  for  the  five  years  from  1905  to  1909 
averaging  1,730,000,000  pounds  as  compared  with  9,430,- 
000,000  pounds  of  lint  cotton. 

HEMP 

636.  History.    Hemp  is  a  native  of  western  and  central 
Asia.    It  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  cultivated  plants,  dating  back 
at  least  3,500  years.     It  is  a  member  of  the  Moraceae,  or 
mulberry  family,  to  which  the  mulberry,  the  osage  orange, 
and  the  hop  also  belong.     Hemp,   Cannabis  saliva,  is  a  rank, 
leafy  annual,  reaching  a  height  of  from  8  to  10  or  12  feet. 
The  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  produced  on  separate 
plants;  the  pistillate  plants  are  more  branched  and  the  fiber 
from  them  is  of  less  value  than  that  from  the  staminate.    The 
production  of  hemp  in  the  United  States  is  confined  mostly 
to  central  Kentucky,  central  Tennessee,  New  York,  and 
Nebraska. . 


FLAX  AND  HEMP  FOR  FIBER 


485 


637.  Culture.  Hemp  is  ordinarily  sown  in  April  on  land 
that  is  suitable  for  the  production  of  corn.  Rich  land  and 
the  use  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  result  in  increased  yields. 

The  seed  is  sown  , , 

broadcast  or  with 
the  grain  drill  at 
the  rate  of  from  4 
to  6  pecks  to  the 
acre.  The  growth 
is  rapid  and  there 
is  little  trouble 
from  weeds.  Har- 
vesting begins  as 
soon  as  the  first 
seed  ripens,  which 
is  usually  in 
about  three  and 
one-half  months 
from  planting. 
The  method  of 
harvesting  de- 
pends on  the  vigor 
of  the  growth; 
ordinarily  the 
crop  is  cut  with 
the  mower  or 
binder,  but  if  the 
growth  is  un- 
usually rank  and 
heavy,  the  corn 

knife  is  used.  The  plants  are  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground 
to  ret  with  the  dews  and  rains  and  are  then  shocked  or 
stacked.  The  processes  of  separating  the  fiber  from  the 


Fig.  145.  A  vigorous  growth  of  hemp. 


486  FIELD  CROPS 

remainder  of  the  plant  are  quite  similar  to  those  described 
for  the  production  of  flax  fiber  (Sec.  306).  The  principal 
enemy  of  hemp  is  broom  rape,  a  parasitic  plant,  which  is 
best  combated  by  rotation  of  crops. 

The  best  quality  of  fiber  is  produced  when  hemp  is  retted 
under  water,  as  is  the  custom  in  some  of  the  European 
countries.  Dew-retted  hemp  is  dark  in  color  and  the  fiber 
produced  from  it  is  rather  coarse.  Most  of  the  hemp  grown 
in  the  United  States  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  ropes  and 
of  warp  for  carpets. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

217.  Essential  Steps  in  Securing  an  Early  Crop  of  Cotton. 

285.  The  Advantages  of  Planting  Heavy  Cotton  Seed. 

286.  Comparative  Value  of  Whole  Cotton  Seed  and    Cotton- 
Seed  Meal  as  Fertilizers  for  Cotton. 

290.  The  Cotton  Bollworm. 

302.  Sea  Island  Cotton. 

314.  A  Method  of  Breeding  Early  Cotton  to  Escape  Boll 
Weevil  Damage. 

326.  Building  Up  a  Run-Down  Cotton  Plantation. 

333.  Cotton  Wilt. 

344.  The  Boll  Weevil  Problem. 

364.  A  Profitable  Cotton  Farm. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Burkett  and  Poe's  Cotton. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops. 
Lamborn's  Cotton  Seed  Products. 

Thompson's  From  the  Cotton  Field  to  the  Cotton  Mill. 
Wilcox  and  Smith's  Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 
Boyce's  Hemp. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  57,  The  Cultivation  of  Hemp 

in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
TOBACCO 

638.  Origin  and  History.  Tobacco  is  one  of  the  com- 
paratively few  important  cultivated  plants  which  are  natives 
of  the  New  World.  At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America, 
it  was  grown  by  the  Indians  over  a  large  part  of  both  conti- 
nents. It  was  taken  to  the  Old  World  by  the  early  explorers, 
and  its  use  soon  spread  among  the  people  there.  For  many 
years,  tobacco  was  a  common  medium  of  exchange  among  the 
settlers  in  Virginia  and  some  of  the  other  colonies.  It  was 
even  made  legal  tender  in  some  of  them,  and  values  were 
commonly  reckoned  in  pounds  of  tobacco  instead  of  in  dollars 
and  cents.  Much  of  the  early  development  of  Virginia  and 
Maryland  was  due  to  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  which  was 
the  most  profitable  one  grown  by  the  colonists  and  the  only 
one  which  they  exported  in  any  quantity.  Later,  it  was 
carried  into  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio  by  the  early 
settlers,  and  these  states  have  always  remained  prominent 
in  its  cultivation. 

Tobacco  is  a  very  different  plant  from  any  of  our  other 
field  crops,  being  grown  for  the  sedative  principle  contained 
in  its  leaves  rather  than  for  the  production  of  grain,  forage, 
or  fiber.  It  is  one  of  that  class  of  plants  which  produce  a 
soothing  effect  on  the  nerves  when  chewed  or  smoked,  as  do 
the  opium  poppy  and  the  betel  nut.  The  natives  of  South 
America  used  tobacco  for  chewing  and  for  snuff,  while  those 
of  North  America  used  it  only  for  smoking.  All  three  uses 
were  adopted  by  Europeans,  and  tobacco  has  since  come  into 
common  use  throughout  the  world, 


488  FIELD  CROPS 

639.  Botanical  Characters.    The  tobacco  plant,  Nico- 
tiana  tdbacum,  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Solanaceae,  in 
which  is  included  the  potato,  tomato,  and  egg  plant,  and  such 
medicinal  and  poisonous  plants  as  henbane,  nightshade,  and 
Jimson  weed  or  datura.     Tobacco  is  a  broad-leaved  annual, 
growing  to  a  height  of  from  5  to  8  feet.    The  leaves,  which  are 
the  portion  utilized,  vary  greatly  in  shape,  size,  and  texture 
in  different  varieties  and  under  different  soil  and  climatic 
conditions.     Climate  and  soil  have  more  influence  than 
variety,  as  widely  differing  varieties  soon  assume  much  the 
same  characteristics  when  grown  in  a  given  locality  for 
several  years.    The  long  white  or  pink  tubular  flowers  are 
borne  in  panicles  at  the  top  of  the  stem  and  on  the  ends  of 
the  side  branches.    The  numerous  and  very  small  seeds 
mature  in  a  few  weeks  after  the  blossoms  appear. 

640.  Types  of  Tobacco.    Several  distinct  types  of  tobacco 
are  grown  in  the  United  States.    The  most  important  are 
the  cigar-leaf,  White  Burley,  heavy  or  export,  and  bright 
yellow.    Cigars  are  made  up  of  three  distinct  parts,  the  filler, 
the  binder,  and  the  wrapper.    The  filler  is  the  main  portion, 
giving  substance  and  flavor;  the  binder  is  then  rolled  around 
the  filler  to  hold  it  together,  and  the  cigar  is  finished  by  roll- 
ing the  wrapper,  a  thin,  clear  leaf,  tightly  around  it.    Filler 
tobacco  is  grown  principally  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  the 
South,   and   wrapper  grades  in  the   Connecticut   Valley, 
Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  Florida.    White  Burley  is  a 
distinct  type  with  light  green  leaves  and  cream-colored  stems 
and  midribs,  which  is  grown  most  largely  in  central  Kentucky. 
Most  of  this  type  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chewing 
tobacco.    In  western  Kentucky,  western  Tennessee,  and  the 
adjoining  sections  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Missouri,  a  type 
known  as  heavy,  dark,  or  export  tobacco  is  grown.    This  is 
a  dark-colored,  thick-leaved  type  which  is  mostly  exported 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  TOBACCO  489 

to  Europe.  In  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  the  principal 
type  is  the  bright  yellow,  which  is  manufactured  into  smok- 
ing and  chewing  tobacco.  Two  or  three  other  types  are 
grown  in  a  small  way  in  other  sections,  but  they  are  com- 
paratively unimportant. 

641.  Importance  of  the  Crop.  The  tobacco  crop  of  the 
world  averaged  2,454,082,000  pounds  annually  for  the  five 
years  from  1905  to  1909.  Of  this  crop,  about  two-sevenths, 
or  736,201,000  pounds,  were  grown  in  the  United  States. 
Among  the  other  countries  where  tobacco  is  largely  grown 
are  British  India,  with  an  annual  crop  of  450,000,000  pounds; 

34.5  ff% 


Fig.  146.  Percentage  of  the  tobacco  crop  of  the  United  States  produced  in  each 
of  the  leading  states,  1902-1911. 

Russia,  with  197,446,000  pounds;  and  Austria-Hungary,  with 
169,524,000  pounds.  Cuba's  crop  averaged  51,798,000 
pounds  for  this  period;  this  was  mostly  high-priced  cigar-leaf 
tobacco.  Other  important  countries  in  the  production  of 
this  crop  are  Argentina,  Brazil,  Germany,  Turkey,  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  and  Japan. 

The  average  area  devoted  to  this  crop  in  the  United  States 
for  the  period  from  1902  to  1911  was  982,000  acres,  with  a 
mean  yield  of  826.3  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  total  pro- 
duction averaged  809,420,000  pounds,  valued  at  $72,771,000. 
The  accompanying  diagram  shows  that  more  than 
one-third  of  the  entire  tobacco  crop  of  the  United  States 


490  FIELD  CROPS 

is  produced  in  the  state  of  Kentucky.  This  state  produces 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  tobacco  crop  of  the  world,  and 
the  average  value  of  its  annual  crop  is  nearly  $23,000,000. 
In  1909  and  1910  the  crop  of  this  state  was  around  four 
hundred  million  pounds  and  was  valued  at  close  to  $40,- 
000,000,  exceeding  that  figure  in  1909.  North  Carolina  and 
Virginia  rank  next  in  production,  though  their  combined 
crop  is  less  than  that  of  Kentucky.  These  three  states 
produce  about  five-eighths  of  the  tobacco  crop  of  the  entire 
country.  The  usual  yield  to  the  acre  in  these  states  is  from 
700  to  900  pounds.  In  Wisconsin  it  is  about  1250  pounds, 
and  in  Connecticut,  1600  pounds. 

642.  Soils  and  Fertilizers.  None  of  our  other  field  crops 
are  so  affected  in  quality  and  value  by  soil  conditions  as  is 
tobacco.  The  soil  should  be  easily  tilled  and  fertile,  con- 
taining a  large  quantity  of  humus.  The  different  types  of 
tobacco  require  soils  of  widely  varying  character  or,  what  is 
perhaps  nearer  the  truth,  the  different  types  of  soil  produce 
widely  different  types  of  tobacco.  Clay  soils  produce  heavy 
tobacco  of  the  shipping  or  export  type,  while  the  finest  leaf 
or  cigar  tobacco  is  grown  on  the  lighter  sandy  soils. 

The  best  wrapper  tobacco  produced  in  this  country  is 
grown  on  the  loose  sandy  soils  of  the  Connecticut  River 
Valley,  similar  soils  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  sandy  loams 
of  southern  Georgia  and  northern  Florida.  These  southern 
loam  soils  are  underlaid  with  red  clay.  Most  of  the  filler 
tobacco  is  grown  on  the  more  fertile,  heavier  loam  soils  in 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  states,  while  the  dark,  rich 
loam  of  southern  Wisconsin  produces  a  large  part  of  the 
binder  leaf.  The  bright  tobacco  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  is  grown  on  a  loose  sand  from  12  to  20  inches  deep, 
underlaid  with  clay.  If  the  clay  is  nearer  the  surface,  a 
heavier  type  of  export  tobacco  is  produced-  White  Burley 


THE  SEED  BED  FOR  TOBACCO  491 

tobacco  is  grown  in  the  fertile  limestone  clay  loam  district 
in  the  central  part  of  Kentucky,  known  as  the  "blue  grass 
region."  The  darker,  heavier  types  of  the  western  part  of 
the  state  and  the  surrounding  region  are  grown  on  soils  of 
a  silty  loam  nature. 

While  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  adaptability  of  soil 
types  to  tobacco  production,  the  crop  grows  better  on  all  soils 
that  are  fertile  and  moist.  The  growth  must  be  rapid  and 
without  check  from  drouth  or  other  causes,  else  the  leaf  will 
be  small  and  of  poor  texture.  The  fertilizer  which  is  used 
depends  largely  on  the  soil  and  the  type  of  tobacco  which  is 
grown,  but  horse  manure  is  quite  commonly  used  when  it  is 
available,  and  commercial  fertilizers  are  also  frequently 
applied.  The  fertilizer,  however,  should  be  well  balanced,  or 
the  quality  of  the  crop  will  be  injured.  An  excess  of  phos- 
phoric acid  affects  the  color  of  the  ash  in  cigar  tobacco,  while 
excessive  nitrogen  produces  a  thick,  heavy  leaf  not  suited  to 
cigar  use.  Some  of  the  cheaper  forms  of  potash,  particularly 
those  which  contain  chlorin,  are  injurious  to  the  burning 
quality  of  cigars.  The  fertilizers  which  are  most  commonly 
used  with  good  results  are  cotton-seed  meal,  high-grade 
sulfate  of  potash,  and  acid  phosphate.  The  fertilizer  is 
usually  broadcasted  or  drilled  in  before  the  plants  are  set, 
the  application  varying  from  200  pounds  to  a  ton  to  the 
acre. 

643.  Preparing  the  Seed  Bed.  Unlike  most  of  our  other 
field  crops,  tobacco  is  sown  first  in  a  plant  bed  from  which 
the  plants  are  later  transplanted  to  the  field.  This  is 
because  of  the  minute  nature  of  the  seeds  and  the  slow  growth 
of  the  young  plants,  and  also  because  these  beds  can  be  pro- 
tected from  late  frosts  and  the  seed  therefore  sown  much 
earlier  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  It  is  always 
desirable  to  use  virgin  soil  for  the  plant  bed,  as  it  contains 


492  FIELD  CROPS 

a  large  proportion  of  vegetable  matter  and  is  also  compara- 
tively free  from  weed  seeds  and  insects.  The  common 
practice  in  many  sections  where  such  land  is  available  is  to 
clear  off  a  small  patch  in  an  open  wood,  the  surrounding 
timber  furnishing  protection  from  cold  and  winds.  If  new 
land  can  not  be  had,  then  newly-broken  sod  is  commonly 
used.  Cultivated  land  should  be  used  only  when  no  other 
is  available;  but  if  it  must  be  resorted  to,  it  should  be  well 
fertilized  the  previous  fall  with  barnyard  manure  or  tobacco 
stems  and  the  soluble  elements  allowed  to  leach  into  the  soil 
during  the  winter.  The  manure  or  stems  should  then  be 
raked  off  in  the  spring  and  the  bed  treated  the  same  as  a  new 
one.  Commercial  fertilizer  may  be  applied  to  the  bed  in  the 
spring  instead  of  the  manure,  if  it  is  more  convenient.  In 
any  case,  all  conditions  should  be  made  as  favorable  as 
possible  to  the  germination  of  the  seeds  and  the  growth  of 
the  plants. 

During  the  winter,  the  bed  should  be  burned  over  to 
make  the  soil  friable  and  to  kill  all  weed  seeds  and  insects. 
This  is  most  commonly  accomplished  by  piling  brush  and 
logs  over  the  bed  and  burning  them.  A  low,  steady  fire  is 
more  effective  than  a  high,  quick  one.  The  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  heated  to  a  depth  of  several  inches.  After  the 
burning,  the  rubbish  should  be  raked  off  and  the  surface  soil 
made  thoroughly  fine  by  working  with  the  hoe  and  rake.  It 
should  not  be  stirred  deeper  than  it  has  been  burned,  or 
buried  weed  seeds  will  be  brought  to  the  surface.  In  recent 
years,  a  long,  shallow,  movable  pan  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  for  burning  tobacco  beds.  This  is  placed  over  a  fire 
which  is  fed  from  one  end,  and  the  surface  soil  to  a  depth  of 
2  inches  is  shoveled  into  the  pan  and  heated  sufficiently  to 
sterilize  it. 


SOWING  TOBACCO  SEED  493 

The  size  of  the  bed  is  naturally  governed  by  the  acreage 
to  be  planted.  Enough  plants  can  be  produced  on  from  75 
to  100  square  feet  to  plant  an  acre,  but  it  is  safer  to  have 
from  150  to  200  square  feet  of  bed  for  each  acre  to  be  planted. 
This  gives  much  more  opportunity  for  the  selection  of  the 
best  plants.  The  most  convenient  shape  for  the  plant  bed 
is  one  about  3  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  may  be  necessary, 
for  this  width  makes  it  easy  to  reach  to  any  portion  of  it  from 
one  side  or  the  other. 

644.  Sowing  the  Seed.  As  the  seed  is  very  small,  it  is 
usually  mixed  with  dry  wood  ashes  or  some  other  fine  material 
to  give  bulk  and  insure  even  distribution.  A  teaspoonful  of 
seed  will  sow  from  200  to  300  square  feet  of  bed.  .  Before 
sowing,  the  light  and  immature  seeds  should  be  blown  out 
with  a  tobacco-seed  grader,  as  the  larger,  heavier  seeds  give 
much  better  plants.  The  date  of  seeding  depends 
largely  on  the  date  of  the  latest  spring  frost.  In  order  to 
have  the  plants  ready  for  setting  in  the  fields  as  soon  after 
this  date  as  possible,  the  seed  should  be  sown  about  two 
months  previous.  This  necessitates  March  seeding  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  Virginia,  while  the  seed  is  sown  in 
April  in  the  states  farther  north.  The  seed  should  be  dis- 
tributed over  the  bed  as  evenly  as  possible  and  covered  very 
lightly.  The  usual  method  of  covering  is  to  sprinkle  the  bed 
thoroughly  with  water,  though  a  board  is  sometimes  used  to 
press  the  seed  into  the  soil  or  it  is  covered  by  brushing  the 
surface  of  the  bed  lightly  with  a  whisk  broom. 

Because  of  this  early  seeding,  some  protection  from  cold 
is  necessary.  This  is  usually  provided  by  driving  stakes  into 
the  ground  along  the  edges  of  the  bed  and  building  a  tight 
enclosure  of  boards  about  1  foot  high.  This  is  then  covered 
with  glass  or  plant  muslin,  the  cloth  being  more  commonly 
used,  as  it  gives  better  ventilation,  is  cheaper,  and  the 


494 


FIELD  CROPS 


plants  under  it  are  less  subject  to  disease.  The  muslin 
should  be  fastened  to  rollers  so  that  it  can  be  removed  easily, 
and  good  care  should  be  taken  of  it  when  not  in  use  so  that  it 
may  be  used  for  several  years.  The  best  location  for  the  bed 
is  on  a  sunny  hillside  with  a  slight  slope  to  the  south  and  east ; 


Fig.  147.     The  kind  of  tobacco  crop  that  is  produced  when  good  plants  from 
selected  seed  are  planted  on  suitable  land  and  given  good  care. 

the  board  on  the  south  side  should  be  lower  than  the  one  on 
the  north.  It  is  necessary  to  water  frequently,  at  least  as 
often  as  three  times  a  week,  for  the  plants  should  never  be 
allowed  to  become  stunted  from  drouth  or  any  other  cause. 


TOBACCO  CULTURE  495 

If  the  muslin  is  used  as  a  covering,  there  is  little  need  for 
ventilation,  and  the  cover  need  only  be  removed  for  watering. 
If  glass  is  used,  however,  the  bed  must  be  ventilated  during 
the  day  by  raising  the  sash,  or  serious  loss  from  damping  off 
and  other  fungous  growth  is  likely  to  result.  All  weeds 
should  be  kept  out,  and  the  plants  should  be  thinned  if 
necessary. 

645.  Preparing  the  Field.     As  tobacco  is  a  crop  which 
gives  large  returns  when  properly  grown,  it  well  repays  much 
care  and  attention  in  fitting  the  field  and  in  cultivating  the 
crop.     In  fact,  it  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to  grow  it  without 
giving  this  attention.     The  field  should  be  put  in  the  best 
possible  condition  before  the  plants  are  set.     Spring  plowing 
is  most  commonly  practiced  on  new  land  and  on  fields  where 
there  is  a  blue  grass  or  clover  sod,  or  where  cover  crops  are 
grown.     It  is  preferable  to  have  a  cover  crop  on  the  land 
over  winter  to  prevent  washing  and  leaching  of  the  soil,  but 
early  spring  plowing  is  desirable.     It  is  then  disked  and  har- 
rowed at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days  till  the  plants  are  set 
in  the  field.     This  frequent  working  puts  the  surface  soil  in 
fine  condition,  helps  to  hold  the  moisture,  and  kills  the  weeds. 
As  the  best  growth  of  the  tobacco  crop  requires  freedom  from 
weeds,  these  pests  should  be  destroyed  as  completely  as 
possible  before  the  plants  are  set.  The  fertilizer  is  distrib- 
uted just  before  the  rows  are  marked  for  planting. 

646.  Setting  the  Plants.     When  the  danger  of  frost  is 
past,  the  plants  are  removed  from  the  bed  and  set  in  the 
field.     Early  setting  is  advisable,  as  a  larger  percentage  of 
the  plants  will  survive  and  the  plants  will  mature  when  con- 
ditions for  curing  are  best.    In  order  to  retain  all  the  small, 
fibrous  roots  and  to  prevent  injury  as  much  as  possible  in 
removing  the  plants,  the  bed  is  thoroughly  sprinkled  before 
the  plants  are  pulled.     They  are  usually  taken  up  in  the 


496  FIELD  CROPS 

morning  and  packed  tightly  in  baskets  or  boxes  for  carrying 
to  the  field.  If  they  are  not  set  at  once,  it  is  best  to  keep 
them  in  a  cool,  shady  place  till  wanted.  Small  or  diseased 
plants  should  be  discarded.  If  the  weather  is  cloudy,  the 
plants  may  be  set  at  any  time  during  the  day;  if  it  is  clear, 
setting  in  the  afternoon  and  evening  is  safest.  The  plants 
are  set  either  by  hand  or  with  the  transplanting  machine,  the 
machine  being  used  generally  where  large  acreages  are  grown. 
If  the  soil  is  dry,  water  is  applied  at  the  time  of  setting,  but 
this  is  not  necessary  when  there  is  plenty  of  moisture.  A 
few  days  later,  all  dead  plants  should  be  replaced  with  fresh 
ones  from  the  plant  bed.  The  distance  between  the  plants 
differs  with  the  variety  and  the  soil,  though  the  usual  dis- 
tance between  the  rows  is  from  3  to  4  feet,  with  the  plants 
from  18  to  24  inches  apart  in  the  row.  With  a  planter,  3 
acres  can  be  set  in  a  day,  three  men  and  a  team  being  required 
in  its  operation. 

647.  Cultivation.    As  soon  as  the  plants  start  into  growth 
after  transplanting,   the  ground  should  be  stirred.    The 
earlier  cultivations  are  usually  with  the  shovel  plow,  to 
loosen  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  and  admit  air  and 
heat.    Later,  surface  cultivation  is  given,  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  maintain  a  dust  mulch.    The  soil  should  be  worked 
toward  the  plants  rather  than  away  from  them,  using  great 
care  not  to  injure  the  roots.     Every  effort  should  be  made  to 
induce  steady,  rapid  growth.     It  is  best  to  continue  the 
cultivation  at  intervals  of  a  few  days  until  the  plants  shade 
the  ground  quite  completely;  after  that  time,  the  leaves  are 
likely  to  be  broken  or  injured  by  it.    The  later  workings  are 
usually  given  with  a  one-horse  cultivator  of  the  spring-tooth 
type. 

648.  Topping.    When  from  ten  to  eighteen  leaves  have 
been  produced,  the  top  of  the  plant  is  broken  out  to  prevent 


TOBACCO  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  497 

the  production  of  seed  and  to  increase  the  size  and  substance 
of  the  leaves.  Considerable  judgment  is  required  in  this 
work,  for  on  it  depends  in  large  measure  the  uniformity 
and  yield  of  the  crop.  Slow-growing  plants  or  those  on  poor 
soil  are  usually  allowed  to  develop  fewer  leaves  than  those  on 
rich  soil  or  which  are  making  rapid  growth.  Soon  after  the 
top  is  removed,  suckers  will  be  produced  from  the  axils  of 
the  leaves.  These  should  be  removed  when  they  reach  a 
length  of  about  3  inches.  It  is  necessary  to  go  over  the  field 
several  times  to  remove  these  suckers,  since  they  continue 
to  appear  as  long  as  the  plant  is  growing.  If  they  are 
allowed  to  develop,  they  will  materially  reduce  the  value 
of  the  leaves  on  the  main  stalk,  by  depriving  them  of  much 
plant  food. 

649.  Insects  and  Diseases.    Tobacco  is  not  subject  to 
injury  from  any  large  number  of  insect  pests  or  diseases. 
The  most  frequent  pest  is  the  horn  worm  or  tobacco  worm, 
which  feeds  on  the  leaves.    This  may  be  killed  by  applying 
from  J/2  to  1  pound  of  dry  Paris  green  to  the  acre,  mixing  the 
poison  with  about  twenty  times  its  bulk  of  flour  and  applying 
it  to  the  plants  with  a  bellows.     If  too  much  poison  is  used, 
it  will  burn  the  leaves.     The  smaller  worms  are  killed  by  the 
Paris  green,  but  it  does  not  affect  the  larger  ones.    These 
must  be  removed  by  hand  picking.     Few  diseases  attack 
the  plant  in  the  field.     Damping  off  and  other  fungous  pests 
sometimes  occur  in  the  plant  bed,  but  these  are  ordinarily 
controlled  by  burning  the  bed  before  seeding,  sowing  only 
the  best  seed,  and  giving  proper  attention  to  ventilation  and 
watering. 

650.  Selection  of  Seed.    A  few  of  the  choicest  plants  may 
be  allowed  to  produce  seed.     As  a  half-dozen  will  produce 
enough  seed  for  several  acres,  there  is  plenty  of  opportunity 
for  the  selection  of  only  the  very  best  plants.    These  ought 

19 


498  FIELD  CROPS 

to  be  uniform  and  typical  of  the  variety  or  type  which  is 
being  grown.  The  market  value  of  the  crop  can  be  materially 
increased  by  care  in  the  selection  of  the  seed  plants.  As 
soon  as  the  flower  stalks  appear,  but  before  any  flowers  open, 
the  head  should  be  covered  with  a  12-pound  manila  paper, 
bag,  for  experiments  have  shown  that  self-fertilized  seed 
produces  much  more  uniform  plants  than  that  which  is  open- 
fertilized.  After  a  few  days,  the  bag  is  taken  off  tempo- 
rarily and  all  superfluous  leaves  and  blossoms  removed, 
leaving  from  forty  to  eighty  seed  pods.  It  is  then  put  back, 
and  taken  off  at  intervals  of  a  few  days  to  remove  new  flower 
buds  which  may  have  formed.  After  three  or  four  weeks, 
the  bag  is  taken  off  permanently,  care  still  being  given  to 
remove  all  flower  buds  which  develop  afterwards.  When 
the  pods  turn  brown,  the  stem  is  cut  off  and  hung  in  a  dry, 
airy  place  for  curing.  The  seed  should  be  stored  in  a  dry 
place  where  it  will  be  safe  from  the  attacks  of  mice  and 
insects,  for  on  it  depends  in  large  measure  the  value  of  the 
succeeding  crop. 

651.  Harvesting  the  Crop.  Two  methods  of  harvesting 
tobacco  are  in  common  use.  Where  cigar-leaf  tobacco  is 
grown,  the  leaves  are  commonly  " primed;"  i.  e.,  the  lower 
leaves,  which  always  mature  first,  are  first  removed,  and  the 
others  taken  off  as  they  ripen.  Other  grades  of  tobacco  are 
commonly  harvested  by  cutting  the  entire  plant  with  a  corn 
knife  or  a  special  knife  devised  for  the  purpose.  The 
proper  stage  of  ripeness  is  indicated  by  a  slight  yellowing  of 
the  leaves  and  by  several  other  tests  known  to  the  grower, 
such  as  the  "feel"  of  the  leaves  and  the  brittleness  of  the 
veins.  The  plants  are  usually  ready  to  harvest  about  a 
month  after  topping. 

Where  the  leaves  are  cut  singly,  they  are  strung  on 
laths,  which  pierce  them  near  the  base,  thirty  to  forty  leaves 


HARVESTING  AND  CURING  TOBACCO  499 

being  put  on  a  lath.  If  the  entire  plant  is  cut,  from  four  to 
six  are  put  on  a  lath,  according  to  the  size  of  the  plant.  A 
removable  metal  spear  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the  lath  and 
run  through  the  base  of  the  stalk.  The  leaves  are  allowed 
to  wilt  for  a  few  hours,  and  are  then  hauled  to  the  barn  for 
curing.  In  hot,  sunshiny  weather  the  wilting  is  best  accom- 
plished by  hanging  the  laths  close  together  on  a  temporary 
scaffolding  in  the  field,  as  the  leaves  are  likely  to  sunburn  if 
left  fully  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays.  Leaves  which  are  "  yel- 
lowed" or  wilted  on  the  scaffold  are  less  likely  to  burn  in 


Fig.  148.  Harvesting  tobacco.     The  stalks  are  strung  on  laths  and  loaded  on  the 
frame  on  the  wagon,  to  be  hauled  to  the  barn  for  curing. 

curing.     Care  should  be  taken  throughout  the  harvesting 
process  to  avoid  injury  by  bruising. 

652.  Curing.  The  curing  process  depends  largely  on  the 
use  which  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop.  The  object  is  to  remove 
the  moisture  in  the  leaves  and  stems  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  an  even  texture  and  coloring  in  the  leaves.  For 
this  purpose,  the  tobacco  is  hung  in  the  curing  barn  as  soon 
as  it  has  wilted.  Scaffolding  is  provided  so  that  the  laths 
may  be  hung  in  tiers,  giving  plenty  of  room  between  the 
plants  for  ventilation.  The  plants  should  be  shaken  when 


500 


FIELD  CROPS 


hung  in  the  barn,  to  prevent  the  leaves  from  sticking  together. 
Good  ventilation  at  the  sides  and  top  of  the  barn  must  be 
provided. 

Ordinarily,  the  tobacco  is  air-cured,  though  in  damp 
seasons  some  artificial  heat  may  be  necessary.  In  dry 
weather,  the  ventilators  are  left  open  day  and  night.  On 
damp  days,  they  should  ordinarily  be  open  during  the  day, 
though  they  may  be  closed  at  night.  If  the  air  is  very  damp, 


Fig.  149.  A  tobacco  curing  barn  with  horizontal  ventilators.      The  method  of 
hanging  the  leaves  in  the  barn  is  shown. 

the  ventilators  may  be  kept  closed  for  as  long  as  forty-eight 
hours,  or  until  the  saturation  point  is  indicated  by  the 
"sweating"  of  the  tobacco.  They  must  then  be  opened  and 
charcoal  fires  built  to  create  a  circulation  of  air,  else  "house- 
burn"  and  discoloration  of  the  leaves  may  result.  Two 
months  are  ordinarily  required  for  curing,  though  the  process 
may  be  completed  in  less  time  if  artificial  heat  is  used. 
Rapid  curing,  however,  is  likely  to  result  in  poor  color  of  the 
leaves. 


PREPARING  TOBACCO  FOR  MARKET  501 

653.  Stripping  and   Grading.     Moist   days   during  the 
winter  are  usually  selected  for  stripping,  or  removing  the 
leaves  from  the  stalks.     In  some  localities,  the  tobacccLis 
removed  to   a  damp   cellar  before  stripping.    When  the 
leaves  contain  sufficient  moisture,  they  may  be  handled 
without  cracking  or  breaking.    Much  depends  on  having 
the  leaves  in  proper  "case;"  that  is,  in  having  them  contain 
just  enough  moisture  to  handle  readily.     If  they  are  too  dry 
or  are  "going  out  of  case,"  they  will  continue  to  dry  out 
when  bulked  and  become  brittle;  while  if  they  are  too  moist 
or  in  "too  high  case,"  they  will  become  very  dark  when  in 
bulk. 

The  leaves  are  sorted  into  from  three  to  five  grades  as 
they  are  stripped,  the  number  of  grades  depending  on  the 
type  of  tobacco  and  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  it.  These 
grades  have  different  names  in  the  different  types,  and  vary 
materially  in  their  market  value.  The  central  leaves  on  the 
stalks  usually  go  in  the  best  grade.  After  the  leaves  are 
graded,  they  are  tied  in  small  bundles  and  these  into  larger 
bundles,  the  form  and  size  of  the  package  depending  some- 
what on  the  kind  of  tobacco.  Tobacco  which  is  packed  in 
the  winter  will  sweat  in  May,  and  must  be  hung  out  to  dry 
or  it  will  rot.  It  may  then  be  bulked  and  will  keep  indefi- 
nitely, as  will  that  which  is  put  down  in  "summer  order;" 
i.e.,  allowed  to  hang  in  the  curing  shed  over  winter  and  then 
stripped  and  packed  the  following  summer. 

654.  Marketing.    The  method  of  marketing  depends  on 
the  distance  which  the  tobacco  must  be  shipped.     If  factories 
or  warehouses  are  close  by,  it  is  marketed  loose.    If  it  must 
be  shipped  a  considerable  distance,  it  is  packed  tightly  into 
hogsheads  or  large  casks.    The  manner  of  packing  depends 
largely  on  the  market.     Only  one  grade  should  be  put  in  a 
package,  and  care  should  be  exercised  in  packing  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  price.    There  are  usually  warehouses  or 


502  FIELD  CROPS 

factories  close  to  the  tobacco  fields,  so  that  the  farmer  need 
not  pack  his  crop. 

655.  Returns.  The  price  of  tobacco  varies  widely  from 
year  to  year,  according  to  the  supply  and  other  causes. 
There  are  also  wide  differences  in  price  among  the  different 
grades.  The  average  price  per  pound  for  the  ten  years  from 
1902  to  1911  was  7.96  cents  in  Kentucky,  where  smoking  and 
heavy  export  tobaccos  are  largely  grown;  in  North  Carolina, 
where  chewing  and  the  better  grades  of  smoking  tobacco 
are  grown,  it  was  9.33  cents;  in  Connecticut,  where  the  crop 
is  entirely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  the  average 
price  per  pound  was  17.11  cents;  while  in  Florida,  where  the 
best  grade  of  cigar  wrappers  is  produced,  the  average  return 
to  the  grower  was  31.15  cents. 

As  the  acre  yield  varies  from  600  to  1,500  pounds  or  even 
more,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  value  of  an  acre  of 
tobacco  is  high.  This  is  justly  so,  as  the  expense  of  growing 
the  crop  is  heavy.  The  average  value  per  acre  in  Kentucky 
for  the  same  ten  years  was  $66.81;  Virginia,  $62.10;  North 
Carolina,  $59.98;  Connecticut,  $287.52;  and  Florida,  $253.22. 
The  Connecticut  and  Florida  tobacco  is  largely  grown  under 
the  shade  of  muslin  screens,  and  the  cost  of  production  is 
high,  so  that  the  net  returns,  while  greater  than  in  the  other 
states,  are  not  so  large  as  might  at  first  appear. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

60.  Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco. 

82.  The  Culture  of  Tobacco. 

83.  Tobacco  Soils. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  639-653. 
Billings'  Tobacco,  Its  History,  Culture,  and  Varieties. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  242-247. 
Killebrew  and  Myrick's  Tobacco  Leaf. 


PART  V— CONCLUDING  CHAPTERS 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

656.  Definition.     A  rotation  of  crops,  according  to  the 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  is  "a  recurring  succes- 
sion of  plants  covering  a  regular  period  of  years  and  main- 
tained on  alternating  fields  on  the  farm."     Crop  rotation 
can  best  be  explained,  perhaps,  by  giving  an  example  of  it 
which  is  common  in  many  sections.     A  cultivated  crop,  as 
corn  or  potatoes,  is  grown  on  one  part  of  the  farm  the  first 
year;  a  grain  crop,  as  wheat,  oats,  or  barley,  on  another; 
and  a  grass  crop,  as  timothy,  clover,  or  brome  grass,  on  a 
third  part.    The  following  year  the  grain  will  occupy  the 
land  where  the  cultivated  crop  was  grown;  the  grass  crop, 
which  was  sown  with  the  grain  the  first  year,  will  occupy  that 
land ;  while  the  land  in  grass  the  first  year  will  be  broken  and 
planted  to  a  cultivated  crop.    This  regular  sequence  of 
cultivated  crops,  grain  crops,  and  grass  crops,  is  called  a 
rotation  of  crops.    Unless  there  is  some  definite  plan  and 
reason  for  such  a  sequence,  it  can  not  properly  be  called  a 
rotation.     For  instance,  the  alternating  of  oats  or  barley  or 
flax  with  wheat  in  a  spring-wheat  region  can  hardly  be  called 
a  rotation,  for  it  does  not  conform  to  the  principles  on  which 
crop  rotation  is  based. 

657.  Origin  of  Crop  Rotation.     The  system  of  farming 
which  was  originally  followed  was  to  grow  a  crop  on  a  piece 


504  FIELD  CROPS 

of  land  continuously  until  the  yields  decreased  below  the 
point  where  production  was  profitable.  Then  the  land  was 
allowed  to  "rest;"  i.  e.,  it  reverted  to  a  state  of  nature,  grow- 
ing up  to  weeds,  brush,  or  trees,  while  a  new  field  was  cleared 
for  the  farm  operations.  If  the  old  piece  was  again  cleared 
after  a  few  years,  its  original  fertility  would  be  found  to  be 
largely  restored,  for  the  plants  which  grew  on  it  during  the 
interval  drew  the  plant  food  from  the  soil  as  it  became  avail- 
able and  returned  it  with  each  recurring  season. 

After  a  time,  the  practice  became  common  of  resting  the 
land  for  but  a  single  season,  allowing  it  to  grow  up  to  weeds 
and  then  plowing  them  under.  This  was  less  expensive  and 
laborious  than  clearing  new  land,  while  its  effect  on  crop 
yields  was  nearly  as  good.  As  agriculture  advanced,  the 
land  was  cultivated  during  this  resting  period  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  weeds  and  what  was  known  as  the  "summer  fallow" 
was  developed.  Still  later,  a  cultivated  crop  was  substituted 
for  the  summer  fallow,  for  land  was  constantly  becoming 
more  valuable  and  it  was  not  profitable  to  allow  it  to  lie 
idle  every  alternate  year.  Crop  rotation  was  thus  eventually 
developed.  This  same  process  of  evolution  from  continuous 
cropping  to  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops  is  repeated  in 
more  or  less  detail  in  practically  every  newly-settled  country. 
It  is  now  taking  place  in  a  large  part  of  our  western  territory, 
though  here  the  lack  of  rainfall  may  interfere  in  some  degree 
with  the  adoption  of  logical  rotation  systems. 

HOW  ROTATIONS  HELP 

658.  Advantages  of  a  Rotation.  A  rotation  of  crops 
improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  helps  to  con- 
serve moisture  and  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  lessens  the 
damage  from  insects  and  plant  diseases,  aids  in  the  control 
of  weeds,  increases  crop  yields,  distributes  the  necessary 


HOW  ROTATIONS  HELP  505 

labor  of  crop  production,  and  helps  to  systematize  farm  oper- 
ations. 

659.  Rotation  Improves  the  Physical  Condition  of  the 
Soil.    The  roots  of  all  plants  do  not  penetrate  the  soil  to  the 
same  depth.    Deep-rooting  plants  like  clover  and  alfalfa 
enter  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil;  when  their  roots  decay  they 
open  channels  for  the  passage  of  air  and  moisture  and  make  it 
easier  for  the  crops  which  follow  to  draw  on  the  stores  of 
plant  food  in  the  subsoil.     Constant  cultivation  and  the 
growing  of  cultivated  crops  tend  to  decrease  the  supply  of 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  because  favorable  conditions 
for  its  decomposition  are  provided.     Grain  crops  add  little 
in  the  way  of  vegetable  matter  unless  the  straw  is  returned 
in  manure,  as  the  roots  and  stubble  are  not  bulky.    The 
grasses,  however,  grow  for  two  or  more  years  and  accumulate 
a  large  quantity  of  fibrous  material,  which  tends  to  restore 
the  supply  of  vegetable  matter.     If  a  portion  of  this  matter 
is  in  the  lower  soil  layers,  as  in  the  case  of  deep-rooting  plants, 
it  further  improves  the  physical  condition.    The  varying 
cultivation  which  is  given  to  different  crops  is  also  of  benefit, 
for  the  soil  is  stirred  to  different  depths  and  aerated. 

660.  Rotations  Conserve  Moisture.    Practically  all  sys- 
tems of  rotation  include,  at  some  time  during  their  course, 
one  or  more  cultivated  crops.    Cultivation,  by  maintaining 
a  surface  mulch  and  lessening  evaporation,  helps  to  hold  the 
moisture  in  the  soil.     Moisture  passes  very  readily  from 
stubble  land,  or  from  any  bare,  untilled  field,  but  the  tillage 
given  a  cultivated  crop  conserves  moisture  for  the  crop  which 
follows. 

661.  Rotations  Conserve  Vegetable  Matter.    Constant 
cultivation  and  the  removal  of  crops  rapidly  reduce  the 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.    A  rational  system  of  rotation 
includes  the  keeping  of  more  or  less  live  stock  to  turn  the 


506 


FIELD  CROPS 


bulkier  and  less  valuable  products  of  the  farm  into  more  con- 
centrated and  more  readily  salable  products.  With  proper 
care  given  to  the  manure,  a  large  part  of  this  vegetable  matter 
may  be  returned  to  the  soil.  While  grain  crops  and  cultivated 
crops  are  exhaustive  of  vegetable  matter,  grass  crops, 
because  they  have  extensive  root  systems,  materially  increase 
the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 


Fip.  150.  Samples  of  soil  from  (1)  a  grass  plot,  and  (2)  from  one  which  has 
been  in  corn  continuously  for  a  number  of  years.  Note  the  absence  of  vege- 
table matter  in  the  sample  from  the  corn  field. 

662.  Rotations  Lessen  Damage  from  Insects  and  Dis- 
eases. Most  of  the  plant  diseases  and  injurious  insects  are 
decidedly  limited  in  the  number  of  plants  on  which  they  can 
live.  Many  of  them  are  destructive  to  only  one  of  the  crops 
commonly  grown.  "They  are  not  generally  capable  of  move- 
ment for  any  considerable  distance  during  a  season,  but 
increase  very  rapidly  from  year  to  year  if  a  single  crop  is 


ROTATIONS  KEEP  DOWN  WEEDS  507 

grown  repeatedly  on  the  same  land.  The  change  of  crops 
from  one  field  to  another  helps  to  keep  these  pests  under 
control.  As  most  plant  diseases  are  unable  to  maintain 
themselves  for  more  than  three  or  four  years  in  the  soil 
without  their  particular  host  crop  on  which  to  grow,  the  crop 
may  be  returned  to  the  land  at  the  end  of  such  a  period  with 
little  fear  of  injury.  The  same  statement  is  true  to  a  lesser 
extent  of  insects;  some  of  them  will  go  from  field  to  field,  but 
the  greater  part  of  them  will  die  for  lack  of  suitable  food  if 
crops  on  which  they  do  not  feed  are  introduced. 

663.  Rotations  Aid  in  Keeping  Down  Weeds.  Some 
weeds  grow  best  in  certain  crops  or  under  certain  conditions; 
others  thrive  under  totally  different  conditions.  The  small 
grains  offer  particularly  favorable  conditions  for  the  growth 
of  many  weeds.  The  spring  grains  are  sown  before  many  of 
the  weed  seeds  germinate,  and  ordinarily  no  effort  is  made  to 
control  weeds  which  come  up  in  them,  so  that  they  are  allowed 
to  grow  unmolested  till  harvest.  Even  less  opportunity  is 
afforded  to  combat  weeds  in  fall  grain,  except  that  the  grain 
begins  growth  earlier  in  the  spring  than  many  of  the  weeds 
and  is  harvested  earlier  than  some  of  them  mature  their 
seed.  By  harvest,  most  of  the  annual  weeds  have  ripened 
their  seeds  and  have  thus  had  every  chance  to  increase. 
Meadows  and  pastures  offer  less  favorable  conditions  for 
annual  weeds,  as  the  crops  and  weeds  are  cut  or  eaten  off  by 
stock,  and  when  a  good  sod  is  established  it  affords  little 
opportunity  for  weeds  to  get  a  start.  Biennial  and  peren- 
nial weeds,  however,  often  thrive  in  meadows  and  pastures, 
if  the  field  is  left  undisturbed  for  several  years  and  there  is 
no  chance  to  destroy  them  by  stirring  the  soil.  Cultivated 
crops  offer  opportunities  for  the  destruction  of  weeds  of  all 
classes.  In  other  words,  weeds  increase  rapidly  in  grain 
crops,  some  classes  decrease  while  others  may  increase  in 


508  FIELD  CROPS 

meadows  and  pastures,  and  all  classes  decrease  in  fields  on 
which  cultivated  crops  are  grown  and  given  proper  attention. 

664.  Rotations  Insure  Returns.    A  rotation  of  crops, 
with  the  diversification  which  it  necessarily  implies,  insures 
some  return  for  the  season's  labor.    Seasonal  conditions  may 
be  such  as  to  cause  the  total  failure  of  one  crop,  but  it  is  very 
seldom,  at  least  east  of  the  100th  meridian,  that  all  the  crops 
on  the  farm  fail  to  yield  a  profitable  return.     Conditions 
that  are  unfavorable  to  oats  or  wheat  may  be  quite  suitable 
for  corn  or  hay,  so  that  if  one  has  several  crops  he  is  much 
surer  of  some  return  for  his  labor  than  if  he  depends  entirely 
on  one.    The  old  caution,  "Do  not  put  all  your  eggs  in  one 
basket,"  applies  as  well  to  crops  as  to  anything  else.    Plant 
diseases  or  insect  pests  may  destroy  one  crop,  but  they  are 
seldom  destructive  to  all  crops  in  any  one  year.    The  diversi- 
fication of  crops  has  been  the  best  means  of  preventing  finan- 
cial disaster  in  the  sections  of  the  South  which  have  been 
invaded  by  the  cotton  boll  weevil,  just  as  it  has  been  under 
similar  circumstances  in  other  sections. 

665.  Rotations  Increase  Crop  Yields.    One  crop  helps 
to  prepare  the  soil  for  the  one  which  follows.     Clover  opens 
the  subsoil  and  adds  nitrogen  and  vegetable  matter  for  the 
corn  or  potato  crop  which  comes  after  it.    A  cultivated  crop 
preceding  one  of  small  grain  puts  the  soil  in  the  best  physical 
condition,  conserves  moisture,  and  cleans  the  land  of  weeds. 
If  the  crops  which  are  produced  are  largely  fed  on  the  farm 
and  the  manure  returned  to  the  land,  crop  yields  will  be 
further  increased,  because  each  crop,  except  perhaps  the  small 
grains,  increases  the  available  supply  of  plant  food.    The 
grasses  and  clovers  add  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil,  while 
cultivation  unlocks  a  part  of  the  store  of  plant  food  and 
makes  it  available  for  the  use  of  plants. 


ROTATIONS  INTRODUCE  SYSTEM  509 

666.  Rotations    Distribute    Farm    Labor.    Growing    a 
single  crop  or  a  single  class  of  crops  limits  the  seasons  at 
which  farm  work  can  be  done.    The  growing  of  small  grains 
requires  a  rush  of  work  during  a  few  weeks  while  the  land  is 
being  prepared  and  the  crops  seeded,  and  again  during  har- 
vest, with  little  employment  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year.    Cultivated  crops  in  general  are  planted  later  than  the 
small  grains  and  most  of  the  work  of  cultivation  is  done 
before  grain  harvest,  while  they  are  not  ready  to  gather  until 
the  grain  crops  are  safely  housed.    Hay  crops  require  little 
labor  except  at  the  haying  season,  which  usually  comes  when 
other  crops  do  not  require  much  attention,  except  that  it  may 
sometimes  conflict  with  the  harvest  of  small  grains,  or  the 
cultivation  of  intertilled  crops.    The  harvest  of  such  crops 
as  alfalfa,  which  yield  several  cuttings  during  the  season, 
may  conflict  with  the  handling  of  other  crops,  but  such  con- 
flicts can  hardly  be  avoided.    A  diversity  of  crops  usually 
encourages  the  keeping  of  more  live  stock  than  single-crop 
farming,  and  live  stock  usually  requires  more  attention  dur- 
ing the  season  when  the  crops  require  least  care,  thus  dis- 
tributing labor  throughout  the  year.    The  system  of  farming 
which  provides  employment  for  the  farm  labor  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  is  the  one  which  is  most  likely 
to  prove  stable  and  profitable,  other  things  being  equal. 

667.  Rotations  Systematize  Farm  Operations.      A  rota- 
tion implies  a  definite  system  of  operations.    The  following 
of  a  rotation  allows  the  farmer  to  plan  his  work  more  defi- 
nitely during  the  season  and  to  figure  more  definitely  on 
crop  yields  and  income.     Rotations  tend  to  the  division  of 
the  farm  into  regular  units  of  uniform  size,  and  decrease 
rather  than  increase  the  number  of  fields  on  most  farms.    By 
effecting  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  farm  labor  through- 
out the  season,  a  smaller  and  much  more  permanent  force  is 


510  "FIELD  CROPS 

required,  which  in  itself  tends  to  place  the  work  of  the  farm 
on  a  stable  and  systematic  basis. 

668.  Rotations  Do  Not  Conserve  Fertility.  Many  people 
hold  that  rotations  conserve  soil  fertility.  While  crop  yields 
will  decrease  much  more  slowly  where  several  crops  are 
grown  in  a  rotation  than  where  any  one  is  grown  continu- 
ously, crop  rotation  is  just  as  certain  to  exhaust  the  supply 
of  available  fertility  eventually,  if  no  fertilizers  are  used,  as 
is  a  single  cropping  system.  The  various  crop  plants  all  use 


Fig.  151.  Good  plowing  is  essential  to  the  production  of  good  crops. 

the  same  elements  of  plant  food,  though  some  draw  more 
heavily  on  one  and  some  on  another.  The  three  which  are 
most  largely  used  and  which  are  most  likely  to  become 
depleted  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  The 
legumes  take  the  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  store  it  in  the 
soil  in  a  form  available  for  other  plants,  so  that  if  a  legu- 
minous crop  is  grown  as  often  as  once  in  three  years  there  is 


THE  CROPS  IN  A  ROTATION  511 

little  danger  of  the  exhaustion  of  this  element,  but  Nature's 
supply  of  potassium  and  phosphorus  must  eventually  be 
supplemented. 

Live  stock  farming  aids  in  conserving  these  elements,  for 
live  stock  products  remove  much  less  of  them  than  grains, 
hay,  and  cotton.  If  the  manure  is  properly  handled  and 
returned  to  the  land,  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  will  be  very 
slow,  but  it  will  be  constantly  taking  place.  The  products 
which  are  sold  will  remove  some  of  the  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus, while  there  will  also  be  a  considerable  loss  by 
leaching  from  the  soil  and  from  the  manure.  Some  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  should  occasionally  be  added  from 
outside  sources  in  the  form  of  purchased  feeds  or  of  fertilizers 
in  order  to  maintain  or  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

WHAT  A  ROTATION  SHOULD  CONTAIN 

669.  Classes  of  Crops  in  a  Rotation.  So  far  as  their 
arrangement  in  a  rotation  is  concerned,  field  crops  may  be 
divided  into  grass,  grain, -and  intertilled,  or  " fallow,"  crops. 
Grass  crops  include  all  the  plants  which  are  grown  in  meadows 
and  pastures,  such  as  the  perennial  forage  grasses,  clovers, 
and  alfalfa.  These  remain  on  the  land  for  two  or  more 
years  and  increase  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter  by  the 
mass  of  stubble  and  roots  which  they  produce.  All  annual 
crops  not  intertilled  will  be  designated  in  this  discussion  as 
grain  crops.  They  are  sown  too  thickly  to  allow  intertillage, 
and  occupy  the  land  but  a  few  months.  They  exhaust  the 
supply  of  humus  and  plant  food  elements,  and  are  also 
exhaustive  of  soil  moisture.  This  class  of  crops  includes 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  flax,  buckwheat,  millet,  and  all 
annual  forage  crops  similarly  produced.  Intertilled  crops 
are  planted  in  rows  wide  enough  apart  to  be  tilled  during  a 
large  part  of  the  growing  season.  They  are  also  exhaustive 


512 


FIELD  CROPS 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  A  ROTATION  513 

of  soil  fertility,  and  while  the  cultivation  tends  to  "burn  out" 
or  hasten  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter,  it  aids  in 
the  changing  of  plant  food  from  insoluble  to  soluble 
and  also  conserves  moisture.  Intertilled  crops  include  corn, 
cotton,  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  tobacco,  and  many  others  of 
less  importance.  The  annual  leguminous  forage  crops  may 
be  cultivated  like  corn  or  sown  broadcast.  Their  effect  on 
the  soil  is  very  similar  to  that  on  other  crops,  except  for 
their  ability  to  add  nitrogen. 

670.  The  Essentials  of  a  Good  Rotation.    The  essentials 
of  a  good  rotation  are : 

An  intertilled  crop, 

A  crop  for  cash  returns, 

A  crop  for  feeding  to  live  stock,  and 

A  crop  to  increase  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter  and 

nitrogen. 

Two  or  more  of  these  essentials  may  be  embraced  in  a  single 
crop.  Thus  clover  supplies  a  crop  for  live  stock  feeding, 
and  is  one  which  increases  the  supply  of  humus  and  nitro- 
gen. Corn  is  a  cultivated  crop,  and  may  be  either  a  cash 
crop  or  one  for  feeding  to  live  stock. 

671.  An   Intertilled    Crop.    As    already    stated,    weeds 
increase  when  grain  crops  are  grown,  and  the  methods  of 
destroying  them  are  limited.  Some  classes  of  weeds  increase 
in  meadows  and  pastures.     An  intertilled  crop  is  needed  at 
intervals  to  subdue  weeds  and  to  keep  them  from  over- 
running the  land.     Tillage  aids  in  retaining  the  soil  moisture 
and  in  liberating  supplies  of  plant  food.     Stirring  the  soil 
allows  the  air  to  penetrate  to  the  roots  of  the  plants  and 
enables  them  to  grow  better  than  in  hard,  cloddy  ground. 
The  aeration  of  the  soil  also  improves  its  texture  and  pro- 
vides more  favorable  conditions  for  the  growth  and  work  of 
some  of  the  beneficial  bacteria. 

20 


514  FIELD  CROPS 

672.  A  Crop  for  Cash  Returns.    It  is  essential,  if  the  work 
of  the  farm  is  to  be  made  profitable,  that  at  least  one  crop  be 
grown  for  cash  returns.    It  need  not  necessarily  be  one 
which  is  sold  in  its  natural  state,  for  it  may  be  converted  on 
the  farm  into  animal  products  and  then  marketed.     On 
many  farms,  however,  some  crop  is  grown  for  direct  sales 
for  cash  or  its  equivalent.     If  no  cash  crop  is  grown,  there 
is  no  opportunity  to  increase  the  available  funds  for  neces- 
sary improvements  or  for  the  purchase  of  food  and  clothing 
and  other  necessities  of  life  which  can  not  be  produced  on 
the  farm.     It  might  be  possible  to  follow  a  rotation  of  crops 
which  would  rapidly  increase  the  available  supply  of  plant 
food  by  growing  only  such  crops  as  clover,  rye,  and  cowpeas 
and  continually  plowing  them  under  as  green  manure  crops, 
but  this  practice  would  yield  no  cash  returns  and  could  only 
be  followed  where  there  was  some  source  of  income  from 
outside  the  farm.     In  general,  the  growing  of  a  cash  crop  is 
a  necessity.     Cotton,  wheat,  potatoes,  tobacco,  flax,  barley, 
and  sugar  beets  are  important  crops  which  are  grown  for 
direct  sales.    Hay  and  corn  frequently  become  cash  crops 
indirectly  by  marketing  them  through  live  stock. 

673.  A  Crop  for  Feeding  to  Live  Stock.    At  least  one 
crop  should  be  included  in  the  rotation  which  can  be  used 
for  feeding  to  live  stock.    The  necessary  work  stock  should 
be  fed,  as  far  as  possible,  on  products  grown  on  the  farm, 
for  it  is  usually  cheaper  to  grow  their  feed  than  to  purchase 
it.     It  is  generally  profitable  to  keep  some  cattle,  hogs,  and 
sheep,  or  at  least  one  of  these  classes  of  animals,  to  con- 
vert much  that  is  grown  on  the  farm  into  more  readily 
marketable  or  more  valuable  products,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  return  to  the  land  in  the  manure  a  large  part  of  the  fer- 
tility which  is  removed  by  the  crops.     Livestock  farming 
will  postpone  soil  exhaustion  much  longer  than  grain  farms 


CROPS  TO  SUPPLY  NITROGEN  515 

ing  if  no  fertility  is  brought  to  the  farm  from  outside  sources. 
Among  the  crops  which  may  be  grown  for  live  stock  feeding 
are  corn,  grass,  clover,  alfalfa,  oats,  and  barley. 

674.  A  Crop  to  Supply  Vegetable  Matter  and  Nitrogen. 
It  is  necessary  to  conserve  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil,  in  order  to  maintain  profitable  crop  yields.    The 
exhaustion  of  the  vegetable  matter  makes  the  soil  "hard  to 
work;"  it  becomes  stiff  and  lifeless,  bakes  and  clods  badly, 
and  dries  out  very  quickly.     Vegetable  matter  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  land  and  increases  its  moisture- 
holding  capacity.    The   acids,  formed  through  the  decay 
of  this  organic  matter  also  help  to  unlock  the  unavailable 
supply  of  some  of  the  elements  of  plant  food  by  changing 
the  nature  of  the  compounds  and  by  acting  as  a  stronger 
solvent  than  water.     Nitrogen,  the  most  expensive  of  the 
three  elements  of  plant  food  usually  purchased  in  the  form  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  can  be  added  to  the  soil  very  cheaply 
through  the  medium  of  leguminous   crops.    The  grasses 
increase  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter;  the  legumes  increase 
the  supply  of  both  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen.    Vege- 
table matter  is  also  added  to  the  soil  in  corn  and  cotton 
stalks,  straw,  stubble,  and  manure.     The  more  important 
crops  to  supply  vegetable  matter  are  clover,  alfalfa,  the 
perennial  grasses,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  field  peas,  and  green 
manure  crops  such  as  rye,  vetch,  and  rape. 

675.  What  Crops  to  Grow.    The  crops  which  are  included 
in  the  rotation  depend  entirely  on  the  kind  of  farming  which  is 
followed,  the  crops  which  succeed  best  in  the  locality,  and 
the  individual  preferences  of  the  farmer.    All  the  farm 
need  not  necessarily  be  included  in  a  single  rotation.     It  may 
be  advisable  to  have  a  primary  rotation  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  land,  and  a  secondary  one  for  a  smaller  portion  of  it 
which  is  different  in  texture  or  fertility,  or  to  supply  crops 


516  FIELD  CROPS 

for  a  special  purpose.  Thus  the  greater  portion  of  the  farm 
may  be  devoted  to  the  production  of  wheat  and  potatoes, 
with  clover  to  complete  the  rotation.  A  rotation  which 
includes  these  three  crops  embraces  two  cash  crops,  wheat 
and  potatoes;  an  intertilled  crop,  potatoes;  a  crop  for  live 
stock,  clover,  with  the  wheat  straw  as  roughage  and  bedding; 
and  a  crop  to  add  humus  and  nitrogen,  clover.  Such  a 
system  would  not  supply  enough  feed  other  than  clover  hay 
for  any  large  number  of  live  stock.  If  the  section  is  adapted 
to  the  production  of  corn,  either  for  grain  or  for  forage,  that 
crop  might  be  added  to  the  rotation,  or  a  secondary  rotation 
might  be  devised  on  another  part  of  the  farm,  in  which  corn, 
oats,  and  clover  may  be  grown.  Here  all  three  crops  would 
be  suitable  for  feeding  to  live  stock;  all  might  be  considered 
as  cash  crops,  as  they  would  be  marketed  through  the  live 
stock  products;  corn  would  supply  the  intertilled  crop,  and 
clover  the  vegetable  matter. 

676.  When  to  Apply  Manure.  Many  of  the  best  systems 
of  crop  rotation,  as  already  stated,  include  the  feeding  on  the 
farm  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  crops  which  are  produced, 
and  the  return  of  the  fertility  in  the  form  of  manure.  As 
a  general  thing,  this  manure  may  be  applied  to  best  advantage 
to  the  grass  crop  or  to  the  cultivated  crops.  Whenever  it  is 
practicable,  it  should  be  hauled  to  the  field  during  the  winter 
as  it  is  made,  as  the  loss  from  leaching  there  is  less  than  if  it  is 
left  in  the  barnyard.  If  the  manure  can  be  stored  under 
cover  where  it  will  not  leach  away,  it  may  be  left  to  decay. 
Well-rotted  manure  is  less  bulky  and  less  likely  to  contain 
dangerous  weed  seeds  than  fresh  manure;  but  under  most 
other  conditions  it  should  be  applied  to  the  field  as  soon  as 
possible,  because  there  is  less  waste  than  in  rotted  manure, 
and  the  active  rotting  of  fresh  manure  in  the  soil  warms 
it  and  aids  bacterial  and  chemical  action.  Manure  may  be 


LENGTH  OF  THE  ROTATION 


517 


applied  to  meadows  at  any  time  except  during  a  few  weeks 
before  haying,  while  it  may  be  spread  on  pastures  through- 
out the  year,  though  it  is  usually  best  to  apply  it  to  them 
during  the  winter.  In  the  South,  where  a  perennial  grass  crop 
is  not  often  grown,  manure  is  usually  put  on  the  land  before 
planting  the  principal  crop,  which  is  generally  cotton  or  corn. 
677.  Length  of  the  Rotation.  The  length  of  the  rotation 
depends  on  the  crops  which  it  includes  and  the  system  of 


Fig.  153.  The  manure  spreader  distributes  the  manure  evenly  over  the  soil 
so  that  it  can  be  plowed  under  without  trouble  and  placed  where  it  will  be  most 
easily  reached  by  crops.  The  easiest  way  to  handle  manure  is  to  load  it  directly 
into  the  spreader  from  the  stable. 

farming  which  is  followed.  It  may  be  a  two-year,  three- 
year,  or  four-year  rotation,  or  it  may  be  planned  for  a  much 
longer  period.  The  most  common  rotations  are  three-, 
four-,  and  five-year  ones. 

SOME  SUGGESTIVE  ROTATIONS 

678.  Rotations  for  Various  Sections.     It  is  not  possible 
to  outline  a  single  rotation  or  even  several  rotations  which 


518  FIELD  CROPS 

will  fit  all  cases,  for  that  must  be  left  to  the  needs,  facili- 
ties, and  inclinations  of  the  individual  farmer.  Those  that 
are  suggested  here  are  some  that  are  in  more  or  less  common 
use,  and  that  include  the  principal  crops  of  the  sections 
specified.  They  may  be  varied  in  almost  innumerable 
ways. 

679.  In  New  England,  special  crops  are  grown  or  special 
lines  of  farming  are  followed  in  the  different  sections,  and  the 
rotations  depend  entirely  on  the  particular  system  in  vogue 
in  the  locality.    Where  potatoes  are  the  main  crop,  the  rota- 
tion is  often  as  follows:     1,  potatoes;  2,  oats,  with  clover 
seeded  in  the  oats;  3,  clover.1    The  clover  may  be  left  for  two 
years,  or  the  potatoes  may  be  grown  for  two  years  in  suc- 
cession.    In  the  dairy  sections,  fodder  corn  is  one  of  the 
principal  crops.     Here  the  rotation  may  be:     1,  corn,  cut  for 
silage,  followed  by  rye;  2,  rye,  plowed  under  for  green  ma- 
nure, followed  by  corn  and  rye  as  before;  3,  rye,  with  clover 
seeded  in  it;  4,  clover.     In  the  tobacco  district,  tobacco 
may  take  the  place  of  the  second  crop  of  corn. 

680.  In  the  North  Atlantic  states,  dairying  is  generally 
important.     Here  a  common  rotation  is:     1,  corn;  2,  wheat, 
seeded  to  clover  and  grass;  3,  meadow;  4,  pasture.    The 
pasture  may  be  left  for  one  or  more  years.    A  little  farther 
south,  where  cowpeas  and  crimson  clover  can  be  grown,  the 
rotation  may  be:     1,  corn;  2,  wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas; 
3,  cowpeas,  cut  early  for  hay,  followed  by  grass;  4,  meadow; 
5,  pasture.    The  simple  three-year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat, 
clover,  or  corn,  oats,  clover,  may  also  be  followed. 

681.  In  the  Southeastern  states,  rotations  are  less  com- 
;      mon,  for  the  land  is  kept  pretty  constantly  in  cotton.  Because 

iln  this  discussion  of  rotations,  the  figures  refer  to  the  year  in  the  ro- 
tation. Thu3,  in  the  one  just  given,  a  crop  of  potatoes  is  grown  on  a  given  piece 
of  land  the  first  year;  the  second  year  it  is  sown  to  oats,  with  clover  seeded  in  the 
oats;  while  the  third  year  it  is  a  clover  meadow  or  pasture.  If  potatoes  are  grown 
for  two  years,  it  would  be:  1,  potatoes;  2,  potatoes;  3,  oats;  4,  clover. 


ROTATIONS  IN  THE  CENTRAL  STATES 


519 


1912  CORN 

1913  OATS 

1914  CLOVER 

1915  CORN 


of  the  possibility  of  growing  several  crops  during  the  year, 
many  different  combinations  of  crops  may  be  made.  One 
which  includes  the  two  most  important  crops,  corn  and  cot- 
ton, and  also  embraces  all  the  features  of  a  good  rotation,  is: 
1,  cotton,  followed  by  rye  or  bur  clover;  2,  corn,  with  cow- 
peas  sown  in  the  corn,  followed  by  winter  oats  or  winter 
barley;  3,  winter  grain  followed  by  cowpeas  cut  for  hay,  the 
land  then  being  sown  to  rye  or  some  other  winter  cover  crop. 
A  more  simple  rotation,  but  one  which  lacks  an  essential 
feature  of  all  cropping 
systems  for  the  South, 
the  winter  cover  crop,  is : 
1,  corn  and  cowpeas;  2, 
winter  grain,  followed  by 
cowpeas;  3,  cotton;  4, 
cotton  or  corn.  A  sim- 
ple alternation  may  be 
followed  in  some  sections, 
such  as  cotton  and  bur 
clover  or  winter  wheat 
and  cowpeas.  With  the 
addition  of  phosphorus 
and  potassium,  this  is 
very  successful. 

682.  Rotations  in  the  Central  States.  In  the  Central 
states,  in  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  corn  belt,  the  one 
crop  on  which  all  systems  of  farming  are  based  is  corn.  The 
three  principal  crops  are  corn,  wheat,  and  grass  or  corn,  oats, 
and  grass,  and  they  are  arranged  in  the  rotation  in  the  order 
named.  Two  crops  of  corn  may  be  grown  in  succession  or  the 
land  may  be  left  in  grass  for  one,  two,  or  more  years,  either 
as  meadow  or  pasture.  A  very  common  form  of  this  rota- 
tion is  the  five-year  one,  as  follows:  1,  corn;  2,  corn;  3, 


1912  CLOVER 

1913  CORN 

1 914  OATS 

1 9!  5  CLOVER 


1912  OATS 

1913  CLOVER 

1914  CORN 

1915  OATS 


Fig.  154.  The  arrangement  of  the  fields 
and  crops  in  a  three-year  rotation  of  corn, 
oats,  and  clover. 


520 


FIELD  CROPS 


oats  (or  wheat) ;  4,  meadow;  5,  pasture.  It  is  possible  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  corn  belt  to  grow  a  crop  after  grain  if 
the  land  is  not  seeded  to  grass.  A  rotation  embracing  this 
feature  might  be  devised  like  this:  1,  corn;  2,  oats,  fol- 
lowed by  cowpeas  or  soy  beans;  3,  wheat;  4,  meadow; 
5,  pasture. 

In  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  the  Dakotas,  some  of  the 
rotations  used  in  New  York  and  New  England  may  be  profit- 
ably followed.  In  the 
Dakotas  and  farther 
west,  rotations  are  not 
commonly  practiced, 
only  small  grain  crops 
being  extensively  grown. 
A  system  of  farming 
based  on  a  single  class 
of  crops  can  hardly  be 
called  a  rotation.  The 
land  is  usually  sown  to 
flax  when  it  is  first 
broken;  wheat  is  then 
grown  for  a  period  of 


1912  CORM 

1913  OATS 
I9M  MEADOW 

1915  PASTURE 

1916  CORM 


1912  OATS 

1913  MEADOW 

1914  PASTURE 

1915  CORM 

1916  OATS 


1912  MEADOW 

1913  PASTURE 

1914  CORM 

1915  OATS 

1916  MEADOW 


1912  PASTURE 

1913  CORM 

1914  OATS 

1915  MEADOW 

1916  PASTURE 


Fig.  155. 
Fig.  154.  into  a  four-year  rotation 


An  expansion  of  the  rotation  in 
Timothy 


first  year  after  seeding;   the  second  year,  it     years,   when    One    Or   tWO 


is  sown  with  the  clover  and  is  cut  for  hay  the 
first  year  after  seeding;   the  second  year,  it 

ispastured-  crops  of  oats  or  barley 

may  be  introduced,  to  be  followed  again  by  wheat. 
Under  this  system,  weeds  increase  rapidly,  and  it  is  often 
necessary  to  resort  to  the  bare  fallow  or  to  introduce  a 
cultivated  crop  to  control  them;  the  latter  is  preferable. 
The  crops  which  are  commonly  introduced  are  corn  and 
potatoes,  and  both  are  usually  grown  with  success. 

683.  Rotations  in  the  Far  West.  In  the  Great  Plains, 
Rocky  Mountain,  and  Pacific  states  the  systems  of  farming 
are  yet  too  new  for  any  general  series  of  rotations  to  have 


REFERENCES  ON  ROTATIONS  521 

been  adopted.  One  which  may  be  followed  in  the  irrigated 
districts  embraces  three  or  four  successive  crops  of  alfalfa, 
followed  by  one  or  two  crops  of  potatoes  or  sugar  beets  and 
perhaps  one  or  more  of  barley,  wheat,  or  oats,  when  the  land 
is  again  seeded  to  alfalfa.  In  California,  on  the  dry  lands 
where  grain  is  grown,  a  more  or  less  definite  sequence  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats  is  sometimes  followed,  but  rotations 
which  embrace  all  the  desirable  features  are  little  known. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  the  home  farm  or  of  some  farm  in  the  neighbor- 
hood and  show  the  crops  which  are  now  grown  on  it.     If  a  definite 
rotation  is  now  followed,  tell  whether  it  is  a  good  one.     If  it  is  not,  show 
how  it  may  be  improved  to  more  nearly  meet  the  four  essentials  of  a  good 
rotation.    If  no  rotation  is  followed,  plan  one  which  is  suitable  for  the 
type  of  farming  which  is  followed. 

2.  Plan  a  three-year  rotation,  using  the  more  important  crops 
of  your  community  and  taking  care  that  the  four  essentials  are  included. 
In  the  same  way,  plan  four-year  and  five-year  rotations. 

3.  Plan  a  rotation  which  will  be  suitable  for  a  dairy  farm  in  your 
section;  for  a  hog  and  beef -cattle  farm;  for  the  production  of  the  leading 
cash  crop. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

242.  An  Example  of  Model  Farming. 

272.  A  Successful  Hog  and  Seed-Corn  Farm. 

312.  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm. 

325.  Smalt  Farms  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

326.  Building  up  a  Run-Do wn  Cotton  Plantation. 
337.  Cropping  Systems  for  New  England  Dairy  Farms. 
355.  A  Successful  Poultry  and  Dairy  Farm. 

454.  A  Successful  New  York  Farm. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  81-109. 
Burkett's  Farm  Crops,  pp.  16-26. 
Hays'  Farm  Development,  pp.  96-116. 
Hopkins'  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  pp.  226-235. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
WEEDS 

684.  Definition.      A  weed  is  any  plant  which  is  growing 
where  it  is  not  wanted;  i.  e.,  a  plant  out  of  place.    A  stalk 
of  corn  in  an  oat  field  is  just  as  much  a  weed  as  is  a  thistle, 
though  it  may  do  less  damage  and  in  its  place  be  a  very  use- 
ful plant.    A  plant  may  thus  be  a  weed  under  some  condi- 
tions, while  it  is  not  under  others.    Many  of  the  wild  plants 
of  our  native  meadows  and  pastures  must  now  be  classed  as 
weeds,  though  before  the  land  was  put  to  use  by  farmers 
they  could  hardly  have  been  so  considered.    The  smaller 
plants  in  a  forest  are  not  weeds,  for  they  are  of  use  in  shad- 
ing the  ground,  preventing  washing,  and  protecting  the  young 
tree  seedlings. 

685.  Need  for  a  Study  of  Weeds.    A  study  of  weeds  is  a 
very  useful  and  necessary  part  of  a  study  of  field  crops. 
In  the  production  of  every  crop  weeds  must  be  considered, 
and  it  is  well  to  know  their  habits  and  how  best  to  keep  them 
in  check.    A  method  of  treatment  that  is  efficient  in  destroy- 
ing one  weed  or  class  of  weeds  may  furnish  a  means  for  the 
spread  of  some  other,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  be  able 
to  recognize  the  principal  weed  pests  and  to  know  how  to  deal 
with  them.    The  seeds  of  some  of  the  most  troublesome 
weeds  frequently  occur  in  grain  or  grass  seed,  hence  it  is 
important  to  be  able  to  recognize  them  and  to  avoid  sowing 
them  with  useful  crops. 

CLASSES  OF  WEEDS 

686.  Basis  of  Classification.    Weeds  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  length  of  time  they  live,  as  annuals,  biennials, 


CLASSES  OF  WEEDS  523 

and  perennials.  It  is  desirable  to  know  to  which  class  any 
weed  belongs,  because  the  methods  of  combating  it  depend 
very  largely  on  whether  it  lives  one,  two,  or  several  years. 

687.  Annuals.    An  annual  is  a  plant  which  makes  all  its 
growth  in  a  single  season.    The  seed  germinates  in  the  spring 
or  summer,  the  plant  produces  blossoms  and  seeds  the  same 
year,  and  then  dies.    The  seeds  of  some  annuals  germinate 
in  the  fall  and  the  plants  live  over  winter,  producing  their 
flowers  and  seed  the  following  season,  usually  during  the 
spring  and  early  summer  months.    These  plants  are  known 
as  winter  annuals.     Corn  is  an  example  of  an  ordinary 
annual,  and  spring  wheat  is  another.    Winter  wheat,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  winter  annual.    Bagweed,  crabgrass,  fox- 
tail, and  mayweed  are  annual  weeds;  shepherd's  purse,  corn 
cockle,  and  cheat  are  usually  winter  annuals,  though  the  seed 
may  not  germinate  till  spring.    Annuals  spread  only  by 
means  of  their  seed. 

688.  Biennials    require    two    years    to    complete    their 
growth.    The  seeds  germinate  during  the  spring  and  summer 
of  the  first  year  and  the  plants  produce  an  extensive  root  sys- 
tem, but  do  not  develop  much  top  growth.    The  following 
spring  they  produce  a  large  growth  of  top,  blossom,  ripen 
their  seed,  and  die.    Like  annuals,  they  spread  only  from 
seed.   The  bull  thistle  and  burdock  are  familiar  examples  of 
biennials,  as  are  also  cabbage,  turnips,  beets,  and  a  number 
of  other  garden  vegetables. 

689.  Perennials.    These  are  plants  which  may  live  an 
indefinite  number  of  years.    This  class  includes  all  our  trees 
and  shrubs,  many  ornamental  plants,  and  such  garden  vege- 
tables as  rhubarb  and  asparagus.    Many  of  our  worst  weeds 
are  perennials.    Some  perennials  spread  only  from  their 
seeds ;  others  have  running;  rootstocks  or  underground  stems 
which  grow  from  year  to  year  and  new  plants  may  spring 


524 


FIELD  CROPS 


up  from  them.  Some  spread  by  means  of  both  seeds  and 
running  rootstocks.  Perennials  which  spread  only  by  seeds 
include  the  dandelion,  docks,  and  plantains.  The  Canada 
thistle  in  many  sections  spreads  only  by  its  rootstocks  and 
does  not  produce  seeds;  elsewhere  it  seeds  abundantly. 


Fig.  156.  Quack  grass,  or  couch  grass. 

Other  weeds  which  spread  by  both  means  are  Johnson  grass, 
quack  grass,  sow  thistle,  and  ox-eye  daisy. 

THE  DAMAGE  DONE  BY  WEEDS 

690.  Weeds  Lower  Crop  Yields.    Weeds  occupy  space 
which  is  needed  by  crops,  thus  crowding  them  out  and  shad- 


HOW  WEEDS  CAUSE  LOSSES 


525 


ing  them.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  an  acre  of  wheat  will  yield 
less  when  Canada  thistle  or  cockle  or  kinghead  are  growing 
in  it  than  when  the  wheat  occupies  all  the  land.  In  the 
same  way,  Johnson  grass  reduces  the  yield  of  cotton,  and 
weeds  of  many  kinds  prevent  corn  from  making  a  full  crop. 
The  greatest  damage  is  often  done  early  in  the  season,  by 
shading  and  stunting  the  crop  plants  before  they  get  well 
started.  Weeds  take 
plant  food  which  is 
needed  by  crops.  It  is 
next  to  useless  to  apply 
manure  or  fertilizer  to 
land  and  then  allow 
weeds  to  use  it.  Weeds 
also  take  moisture  from 
the  soil  at  a  time  when 
crops  need  it  most. 

Weeds  lower  crop 
yields  by  harboring  in- 
sects and  diseases.  In 
some  cases,  weeds  are 
infested  with  the  same 
diseases  as  are  crop 
plants.  This  is  true  of 
the  root  rot  of  cotton 
and  other  plants  in  Fig.  157.  Canada  thistle. 

the  South,  which  may  maintain  a  foothold  in  fields  by 
living  on  weeds  when  crops  it  does  not  affect  are  grown 
there.  Many  weeds  of  the  mustard  family  help  to  spread 
club-root  of  the  cabbage  and  turnip.  When  the  diseases 
do  not  actually  live  on  the  weeds,  the  latter  may  make  con- 
ditions favorable  for  their  development  on  crop  plants. 
Thus  rust  and  mildew  are  produced  most  readily  in  shady, 


526  FIELD  CROPS 

damp  situations,  such  as  are  found  where  the  growth 
of  weeds  is  rank.  Weeds  may  harbor  insects  by  supplying 
them  with  food  when  crop  plants  are  not  available,  or  by 
furnishing  them  a  safe  refuge  over  winter  under  rubbish 
along  fence  rows  or  in  fields. 

691.  Weeds  Lower  the  Value  of  Crop  Products.    The 
presence  of  weeds  or  weed  seeds  in  crop  products  often 
lowers  their  value.  Buyers  of  grain  quite  often  make  a  mate- 
rial dockage  in  weight  or  price  for  the  presence  of  any  notice- 
able quantity  of  weed  seeds,  and  this  dockage  is  usually 
more  than  is  justified  by  the  actual  weight  of  the  weed  seeds. 
If  the  grower  removes  the  seeds  before  marketing,  they 
increase  the  cost  of  production  by  the  labor  which  is  required 
to  separate  them  from  the  grain.    Weeds  in  hay  materially 
affect  the  value  of  that  product  for  the  market  or  for  feeding. 
Weeds  in  grain  crops  make  the  bundles  more  bulky  and  thus 
more  twine  is  required  to  harvest  the  crop.    They  increase 
the  weight  of  the  crop  which  must  be  handled,  both  of  grain 
and  hay.    They  increase  the  expense  of  gathering  the  crop 
by  delaying  harvesting  operations,  as  in  cotton,  potato, 
and  corn  fields.     Rank,  succulent  growth  of  weeds  delays 
the  curing  of  hay  and  grain  crops,  and  may  thus  reduce 
their  quality. 

692.  Weeds  Injure  Pastures.    In  addition  to  crowding 
out  useful  pasture  plants  and  using  plant  food  and  moisture, 
weeds  decrease  the  value  of  pastures  in  other  ways.    They 
may  be  distasteful  to  animals,  either  because  of  their  odor 
or  taste  or  because  they  are  armed  with  spines  or  thorns, 
causing  stock  to  avoid  their  vicinity  and  thus  allowing  a 
portion  of  the  useful  pasture  grasses  to  go  to  waste.    They 
may  injure  animals  which  eat  them  by  causing  irritation,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  beards  of  wild  barley  or  squirrel-tail  grass, 


HOW  WEEDS  CAUSE  LOSSES 


527 


or  they  may  be  actually  poisonous,  as  the  loco  weed  of  the 
western  prairies  and  the  laurel  of  the  Southeastern  states. 

693.  Weeds  Injure  Animal  Products.    Another  way  in 
which  weeds  injure  the  farmer  is  by  causing  a  loss  in  the  value 
of  certain  animal  products.    The  seeds  of  such  weeds  as 
burdock,  stickseed  and  cockle  bur  adhere  to  wool  and  reduce 
its     value     materially. 

They  also  injure  the 
appearance  of  animals 
by  clinging  to  the 
manes  and  tails  of 
horses  and  the  tails  of 
cattle.  Other  weeds, 
when  eaten  by  dairy 
cows,  cause  a  disagree- 
able odor  or  taste  in 
their  products.  This 
class  of  weeds  includes 
the  wild  onion,  rag- 
weed, and  French- 
weed. 

694.  Weeds  Reduce 
the  Value  of  Land.  The 
presence  of  noxious 
weeds   on   a  farm   re- 
duces   its    value    and 

lessens  the  chances  of  a  profitable  sale.  A  farm  infested 
with  Canada  thistles,  quack  grass,  or  Johnson  grass  can 
not  be  sold  as  readily  nor  at  as  high  a  price  as  one  which 
is  free  from  these  weeds.  Weeds  along  fences  and  roads 
are  not  pleasing  in  appearance,  and  thus  lessen  the  attrac- 
tiveness of  a  farm. 


528  FIELD  CROPS 

695.  Weeds  May  Be  Injurious  to  Man.    Some  weeds 
are  actually  injurious  to  man.    They  may  cause  poisoning 
from  contact  with  them,  as  poison  ivy,  or  from  eating  them 
or  their  seeds.    Wild  parsnips  are  sometimes  eaten  for  the 
cultivated  kind,  with  disastrous  results.     The  seeds  of  corn 
cockle  when  ground  with  wheat  into  flour  are  poisonous, 
as  are  the  seeds  of  some  other  weeds. 

BENEFITS  FROM  WEEDS 

696.  Uses.    While  most  weeds  are  injurious,  some  may 
be  of  value  under  certain  conditions.     The  leaves  of  dande- 
lions and  the  young  shoots  of  the  pokeroot  are  eaten  as 
vegetables.    Many  weeds  furnish  pasture   of  more  or  less 
value,  though  none  of  our  domestic  animals  except  sheep 
ordinarily  eat  weeds  when  the  more  tender  and  nutritious 
pasture  plants  are  available.     Sheep  eat  many  kinds  of 
weeds,  and  are  very  often  useful  in  keeping  down  these 
pests  in  pastures  and  along  fences.    Weeds  furnish  a  cover 
to  land  which  is  not  in  crop,  and  may  prevent  loss  of  soil 
fertility  by  leaching  or  by  erosion.     Deep-rooting  weeds 
bring  up  some  plant  food  from  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil, 
and  leave  it  on  the  surface  where  it  is  available  for  crops  which 
follow.    They  also  open  passages  for  the  movement  of  the 
soil  moisture  and  make  it  easier  for  the  roots  of  crops  to 
penetrate  the  subsoil.    Weeds  add  to  the  vegetable  matter 
in  the  soil  when  they  are  plowed  under  and  increase  the  plant 
food  which  is  available  for  useful  crops  which  follow.     All 
these  purposes  are  served  to  better  advantage,  however,  by 
growing  some  of  our  many  cultivated  plants  specially  adapted 
to  the  particular  use. 

697.  Weeds  Make  Cultivation  and  Rotation  Necessary. 
Weeds  are  sometimes  commended  because  they  make  neces- 
sary the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  which  might  otherwise  be 


HOW  WEEDS  INCREASE  629 

neglected  to  the  injury  of  crops.  This  cultivation  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  keeping  down  weeds  and  preventing 
the  loss  of  soil  moisture.  Another  benefit  from  weeds  is 
that  they  often  force  the  use  of  a  system  of  crop  rotation 
which  might  not  be  adopted  if  it  were  not  made  necessary 
by  their  prevalence.  Some  weeds  which  are  practically 
impossible  to  control  in  grain  fields  soon  disappear  when  a 
cultivated  crop  is  grown  or  the  land  is  seeded  to  grass.  When 
mustard,  wild  oats,  or  other  weeds  become  very  plentiful 
in  fields  where  small  grain  is  grown  continuously,  they  can 
best  be  checked  by  growing  a  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes  and 
cultivating  it  thoroughly.  This  is  good  practice,  even  when 
no  weeds  are  present,  but  it  might  not  be  adopted  if  the  weeds 
had  not  compelled  its  use.  Many  weeds  of  meadows  and 
pastures  are  easily  killed  by  cultivation.  Thus  the  rotation 
of  crops  is  an  efficient  means  of  subduing  weeds. 

HOW  WEEDS  SPREAD 

698.  Agencies.    Weeds   spread   in   many   ways.    Some 
weeds  have  few  or  limited  means  of  distribution,  while  others 
are  provided  with  many  agencies  of  dissemination.     Natural 
agencies,  such  as  the  movement  of  wind  and  water,  play  a 
large  part  in  the  spread  of  weeds.    Animals,  both  wild  and 
domestic,  carry  the  seeds  from  place  to  place.    The  activities 
of  man,  however,  are  perhaps  more  efficient  in  spreading 
weeds  than  any  other  factor. 

699.  Natural  Agencies.    One  of  the  most  important  of 
the  natural  agencies  by  which  weeds  spread  is  the  movement 
of  air  currents.    The  seeds  of  many  plants  are  so  light  or 
they  are  provided  with  appendages  of  such  a  nature  that  they 
are  easily  carried  long  distances  by  the  wind.    The  seeds  of 
the  milkweed,  thistle,  and  dandelion  spread  more  widely  by 
the  agency  of  winds  than  by  any  other  means.    Some  plants, 
21 


530  FIELD  CROPS 

as  the  tumbleweeds  and  the  Russian  thistle,  retain  their 
seeds  in  the  capsules  for  several  months  after  they  ripen. 
The  stems  are  broken  off  by  the  winter  winds  and  the  plants 
are  driven  across  the  fields,  distributing  their  seeds  as  they 
go.  Some  seeds  which  are  not  readily  carried  by  wind  alone 
are  carried  by  drifting  snow. 

Water  is  an  efficient  agent  in  the  spread  of  weeds.  The 
seeds  may  float  on  its  surface,  or  they-  may  be  carried  along 
with  soil  or  driftwood.  The  roots  or  branches  of  weeds 
may  be  washed  out  by  sudden  freshets  or  the  cutting  away 
of  stream  banks  and  be  carried  to  new  locations.  The  carry- 
ing power  of  water  accounts  for  the  fact  that  bottom  lands 
are  ordinarily  infested  with  weeds,  as  the  seeds  are  brought 
down  from  the  surrounding  higher  lands  and  deposited  on 
the  bottoms. 

Some  plants  are  provided  with  special  mechanisms  which 
aid  in  their  dissemination.  The  vetches  and  some  members 
of  the  pea  family  have  pods  that  twist  suddenly  when  they 
open,  throwing  the  seeds  in  different  directions.  Others, 
like  the  wild  oat,  have  twisted  awns  or  appendages  which 
coil  or  uncoil  with  changes  in  the  weather  and  aid  in  burying 
the  seeds.  Various  other  plants  are  provided  with  special 
means  of  distribution  of  this  nature,  but  these  are  seldom 
efficient  in  spreading  the  plant  for  any  distance. 

Another  means  by  which  plants  spread,  but  which  tends 
to  localize  them  unless  assisted  by  water,  animals,  or  man,  is 
by  the  extension  of  their  own  growth.  Quack  grass,  Canada 
thistle,  Johnson  grass,  and  many  other  plants  increase  by 
means  of  running  rootstocks,  which  send  up  shoots  at  inter- 
vals and  form  new  plants.  Others,  like  crabgrass,  have 
creeping  or  running  stems  which  root  at  the  joints  and  may 
form  new  plants  if  broken  off. 

700.  Animals.    Wild  and  domestic  animals  both  aid  in 


MAN'S  AID  IN  SPREADING-  WEEDS  531 

carrying  weeds  from  place  to  place.  Some  weed  seeds  are 
provided  with  hooks  which  cling  to  the  wool  or  hair,  as  the 
cockle  bur,  burdock,  and  beggar's  ticks.  Others  are  stored 
as  food  by  animals  or  by  birds  and  are  forgotten,  springing 
up  as  plants  in  new  locations  the  following  year.  Ground 
squirrels,  prairie  dogs,  and  "Other  burrowing  animals  store 
large  quantities  of  grass  and  weed  seeds,  not  all  of  which  are 
consumed,  and  some  of  which  are  not  buried  so  deeply  that 
they  fail  to  grow.  Weed  seeds  are  eaten  by  birds,  carried 
by  them  for  long  distances,  and  then,  passing  through  their 
digestive  systems  unharmed,  are  dropped  in  new  localities. 
Branches  of  weeds  bearing  seeds  may  be  used  by  birds  or 
animals  in  building  nests  and  thus  disseminated.  The 
droppings  of  live  stock  furnish  a  local  means  of  distribution 
from  one  field  of  the  farm  to  another  when  animals  are 
changed  from  pasture  to  pasture  or  worked  in  the  field. 

701.  The  Activities  of  Man.  The  operations  of  human- 
kind furnish  many  of  the  methods  of  weed  distribution,  some 
of  which  are  hardest  to  counteract.  The  movement  of 
vehicles  along  roads  or  from  roads  to  fields  often  serves  as 
an  agency  of  weed  distribution,  particularly  in  damp  weather, 
when  mud  sticks  to  the  wheels  and  seeds  are  gathered  up 
with  the  mud,  to  be  dropped  off  in  some  other  place.  Tillage 
implements  and  the  work  of  tillage  furnish  another  means  of 
distribution.  Weed  seeds  or  the  weeds  themselves  may  be 
carried  from  place  to  place  on  the  implements,  or  may  be 
moved  with  the  movement  of  earth  in  tillage.  Roots  of 
perennial  weeds  are  often  carried  by  tillage  tools;  for.  this 
reason,  poor  or  occasional  cultivation  of  fields  infested  with 
quack  grass,  Johnson  grass,  or  weeds  that  spread  by  similar 
means  is  often  worse  than  no  cultivation  at  all.  Thrashing 
machinery  furnishes  a  ready  means  by  which  weed  seeds 
are  carried  from  farm  to  farm. 


532  FIELD  CROPS 

Railroads  furnish  one  of  the  greatest  agencies  for  the 
spread  of  weeds,  as  they  often  carry  weed  seeds  long  distances 
in  the  bedding  of  cars,  in  shipments  of  grain,  and  in  other 
material.  The  seeds  may  drop  out  along  the  right  of  way 
or  be  cleaned  out  with  the  bedding  at  terminal  points.  In 
the  latter  case,  they  are  very  likely  to  be  transported  to 
near-by  farms  in  manure.  Many  weeds  first  appear  in  new 
localities  along  the  railroads,  and  then  spread  to  adjoining 
fields. 

Packing  material  for  nursery  stock  and  other  articles 
which  are  brought  to  the  farm  from  distant  points  furnishes 
another  means  for  the  spread  of  weeds.  Weed  seeds  are  also 
carried  from  farm  to  farm  or  from  one  locality  to  another  in 
grain  and  hay  which  are  purchased  for  feeding.  The  seeds 
pass  into  the  manure  and  are  then  spread  to  the  fields. 

The  sowing  of  weed  seeds  with  grain,  grass,  or  clover  seeds 
is  one  of  the  most  frequent  methods  by  which  the  dissemi- 
nation of  these  pests  is  effected.  Seed  which  is  grown  on  the 
farm  should  be  carefully  cleaned  of  weed  seeds  to  prevent 
their  spread  from  one  field  to  another,  and  to  reduce  as  much 
as  possible  the  number  of  weeds  with  which  the  crop  has  to 
contend.  Seed  which  is  purchased  should  be  carefully 
examined  to  guard  against  the  introduction  of  weeds  to 
the  farm.  Grain  or  grass  seed  which  contains  the  seeds  of 
noxious  weeds  should  be  refused,  or  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  remove  the  objectionable  seeds  before  sowing. 

702.  Weed  Laws.  Many  states  have  adopted  laws  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  weeds.  Weed  control  laws  are  of  two 
forms,  those  which  require  the  destruction  of  certain  weeds 
along  roads  and  railroad  rights  of  way  and,  in  some  cases, 
in  fields,  and  those  which  are  aimed  to  control  the  dissemi- 
nation of  weed  seeds  in  the  seeds  of  grain  and  grasses  sold  by 
dealers.  The  laws  in  the  various  states  differ  greatly  in 


THE  ERADICATION  OF  WEEDS  533 

their  stringency  and  efficiency,  some  states  being  practically 
without  legal  means  of  weed  control. 

METHODS  OF  ERADICATION 

703.  Annual  Weeds.    One  of  the  most  effective  means  of 
eradicating  annual  weeds  is  to  prevent  them  from  producing 
seeds.    As  they  have  no  other  means  of  living  over  from  year 
to  year,  annual  weeds  would  soon  be  destroyed  if  seed  pro- 
duction were  entirely  prevented.    This,  of  course,  is  not 
practical,  but  every  possible  means  should  be  used  to  reduce 
the  number  of  seeds  which  mature.    Weeds  of  all  kinds  are 
killed  very  easily  when  they  are  small  by  stirring  the  soil 
sufficiently  to  expose  their  roots  to  the  sun.    Harrowing  or 
disking  will  destroy  weeds  soon  after  the  seeds  germinate, 
which  perhaps  would  survive  much  more  severe  treatment 
a  few  weeks  later.    The  frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  helps 
to  keep  down  annual  and  other  weeds  in  cultivated  fields. 
Various  methods  of  preventing  annual  weeds  from  producing 
seed  are  suggested  in  the  paragraphs  which  follow  on  the 
treatment  of  weeds  in  special  crops. 

704.  Biennial  Weeds.    Biennial  weeds  are  neither  as 
numerous  nor  as  difficult  to  eradicate  as  the  annuals  with 
their  great  powers  of  seed  production,  or  the  perennials  with 
their  persistent  roots.    Cutting  off  the  plants  below  the 
crown  during  the  first  year  or  at  any  time  in  the  second  before 
the  flowers  are  produced  will  kill  biennial  weeds.    Biennial 
weeds  are  seldom  troublesome  in  cultivated  fields,  for  they 
are  usually  destroyed  by  plowing.     In  other  locations,  the 
quickest  and  easiest  method  is  to  cut  off  the  plants  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground  with  a  small  spade. 

705.  Perennial  Weeds.    Cultivation  is  the  most  efficient 
means    of    destroying    perennial    weeds.     Smothering    the 
roots  by  preventing  them  from  producing  leaves  by  frequent 


534  FIELD  CROPS 

cultivation,  by  covering  with  straw  or  other  material,  or 
by  sowing  with  some  quick-growing  crop  like  rape  or  sor- 
ghum, is  often  successful.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  eradi- 
cating persistent  perennials  is  to  plow  them  under  about  the 
time  the  plants  are  coming  into  bloom  and  then  to  cultivate 
the  land  thoroughly  enough  during  the  rest  of  the  season 
with  the  disk  or  spiketooth  harrow  to  prevent  them  from 
producing  leaves.  The  next  season  the  land  may  be  put  into 
a  cultivated  crop  such  as  corn,  cotton,  or  potatoes.  A 
smother  crop  may  occasionally  be  substituted  for  the  fre- 
quent harrowings  of  the  first  year,  with  as  good  results  and 
with  far  less  expense,  though  this  method  cannot  be  relied 
upon,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  stand  sufficiently 
thick  in  every  part  of  the  field  to  thoroughly  smother  the 
weed  growth. 

706.  Weeds  in  Cultivated  Fields.  There  is  less  excuse 
for  the  presence  of  weeds  in  cultivated  fields  than  almost 
anywhere  else.  The  seeds  of  our  cultivated  plants  are  large 
enough  so  that  they  may  be  separated  readily  from  weed 
seeds,  while  the  frequent  cultivation  which  is  given  should  be 
effective  in  keeping  down  any  weeds  that  appear  after  the 
crop  is  planted.  Cultivation  sometimes  fails  to  serve  its 
purpose  because  the  work  is  not  done  frequently  enough  or 
at  the  right  time,  or  is  not  thorough.  The  most  effective 
cultivation  may  be  given  before  the  crop  is  planted.  The 
land  should  be  well  plowed,  and  if  it  is  left  without  a  crop  for 
any  length  of  time  during  the  growing  season,  it  should  be 
disked  and  harrowed  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days  to 
kill  any  weeds  that  start.  Small  weeds  are  very  rapidly 
and  effectively  destroyed  with  a  harrow  or  weeder.  The 
land  should  be  harrowed  just  before  the  crop  is  planted,  and 
the  harrowing  may  usually  be  repeated  a  few  days  later, 
either  just  before  or  just  after  it  comes  up. 


WEEDS  IN  CULTIVATED  FIELDS 


535 


With  some  intertilled  crops,  the  first  two  or  three  culti- 
vations can  be  given  very  rapidly  and  cheaply  with  the  har- 
row or  weeder.  Later  cultivations  should  be  with  tools  that 
stir  the  surface  soil  sufficiently  to  kill  small  weeds  and  main- 
tain a  dust  mulch.  Weeds  that  come  up  in  the  row  should  be 
hoed  or  pulled  out  if  necessary,  though  they  may  often  be 
destroyed  when  small  by 
covering  them  with 
earth  in  cultivating. 
Cultivation  should  be 
continued  as  long  as 
possible  without  injury 
to  the  growing  crop, 
or  until  the  ground  is 
completely  shaded. 
Poor  cultivation,  especi- 
ally on  fields  that  are 
infested  with  perennial 
weeds,  is  often  worse 
than  none  at  all,  as  it 
simply  serves  to  spread 
the  weeds.  Among  the 
most  common  weeds  of 
cultivated  crops  are  nut 


grass,    Johnson    grass, 


Fig.  159.  Wild  buckwheat  or  knotweed, 
towing  the  way  in  which  it  twines  around 
with  which  it  is  growing. 


foxtail,  crabgrass,  quack  c 

grass,  knotweed,  morning  glory,    velvet    weed,    milkweed, 

Canada  thistle,  sow  thistle,  ragweed,  and  kinghead. 

707.  Weeds  of  Grain  Fields.  In  wheat,  oat,  barley, 
and  other  small  grain  fields,  less  opportunity  is  afforded  for 
the  destruction  of  weeds  than  in  cultivated  crops.  Here 
most  of  the  work  must  be  done  before  the  seed  is  sown.  The 
same  kind  of  preparation,  so  far  as  possible,  should  be  given 


536  FIELD  CROPS 

as  has  already  been  recommended  for  land  which  is  to  be 
planted  to  cultivated  crops.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
to  insure  the  sowing  of  clean  seed.  It  is  of  little  use  to  harrow 
and  disk  land  to  clear  it  of  weeds  and  then  put  on  a  new  sup- 
ply of  weed  seeds  with  the  seed  grain.  The  harrow  or  weeder 
may  often  be  used  in  fields  of  drilled  grain  to  destroy  small 
weeds  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  spring;  the  harrowing 


Fig.  160.  Blossom  and  root  of  wild  mustard;  also  (1)  the  ripe  seed  pod;  (2)  the 
blossom,  and  (3)  the  seeds. 

should  be  done  with  the  drill  rows  rather  than  across  them. 
Harrowing  broadcast  grain  will  help  to  keep  down  weeds,  but 
it  will  also  reduce  the  stand  of  grain.  Ragweed  and  other 
weeds  which  come  up  in  grain  fields  after  harvest  may  be 
prevented  from  seeding  by  mowing  them  when  they  first 
come  into  bloom,  by  pasturing,  preferably  with  sheep,  or 
by  disking  the  land. 


SPRAYING  TO  KILL  WEEDS  537 

Among  the  common  weeds  of  grain  fields  are  wild  oats, 
wild  garlic,  wild  mustard,  Frenchweed,  peppergrass,  smart- 
weed,  Russian  thistle,  knotweed,  wild  morning  glory,  corn 
cockle,  milkweed,  marsh  elder,  ragweed,  kinghead,  Canada 
thistle,  and  sow  thistle. 

708.  Spraying.    The  use  of  chemicals  in  destroying  weeds 
in  grain  fields,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  meadows,  pastures, 
and  lawns,  has  come  into  prominence  in  recent  years.    If 
applied  while  the  plants  are  young,  the  chemical  spray  is 
effective  in  killing  practically  all  broad-leaved  plants,  while 
it  does  little  injury  to  the  grains  and  grasses.    A  single 
application  will  kill  many  annual  weeds  and  young  plants 
of  the  biennials  and  perennials,  but  several  applications  must 
be  made  to  kill  the  older  perennials,  as  only  the  top  growth 
will  be  destroyed  by  the  earlier  sprayings.     The  most  com- 
mon chemical  which  is  used    is  iron  sulfate,    at  the  rate  of 
100  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water.    About  50  gallons  of  the 
solution  are  required  to  spray  an  acre.    The  weeds  which 
can  be  successfully  treated  with  this  spray  include  wild 
mustard,  Frenchweed,  peppergrass,  shepherd's  purse,  rag- 
weed, kinghead,  and  marsh  elder.    It  is  less  effective  on 
Canada  thistle,  dandelion,  and  other  more  persistent  weeds, 
unless  the  treatment  is  repeated  several  times.     Clover  and 
alfalfa  are  injured  more  or  less  by  the  use  of  any  chemical 
spray. 

709.  Weeds  in  Meadows.    As  in  grain  fields,  prevention 
is  more  effective  than  after  treatment  in  dealing  with  weeds 
in  meadows.    The  land  should  be  in  good  condition  when  the 
seed  is  sown,  and  the  seed  itself  should  be  free  from  weed 
seeds.     Clipping  the  field  in  the  fall  after  the  land  has  been 
seeded  to  grass  will  prevent  many  weeds  from  seeding.    The 
seeding  of  weeds  in  older  meadows  may  often  be  prevented 
by  cutting  the  hay  crop  a  little  earlier  than  would  otherwise 


53S 


FIELD  CROPS 


be  done.  Such  weeds  as  burdock,  bull  thistle,  and  mullein 
may  be  exterminated  by  cutting  them  off  below  the  crown 
before  they  produce  seed.  Breaking  up  the  meadow  and 
practicing  a  rotation  of  crops  may  be  the  only  effective 
means  of  eradicating  some  perennial  weeds.  The  most  com- 
mon weeds  of  meadows  are  morning  glory  or  bindweed,  milk- 


Fig.  161.  The  result  of  spraying  grain  fields  with  iron  sulphate.  The  por- 
tion at  the  left  has  been  sprayed;  th.3  unsprayed  portion  at  the  right  appears  to 
be  a  Bo'^d  mass  of  mustard. 

weed,  dock,  sheep  sorrel,  toadflax,  ox-eye  daisy,  the  plan- 
tains, orange  hawkweed,  Canada  and  other  thistles,  and 
quack  grass. 

710.  Weeds  in  Pastures.  In  pastures,  the  methods  of 
eradicating  weeds  are  much  the  same  as  in  meadows.  Per- 
sistent weeds  may  make  it  necessary  to  break  up  the  pasture 


WEEDS  ALONG  ROADSIDES  539 

and  grow  a  cultivated  crop.  Whece  this  is  not  practicable, 
repeated  mowings  when  in  blossom  or  cutting  biennial  and 
perennial  weeds  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  will  eventu- 
ally weaken  them  and  prevent  their  spread.  Sheep  render 
great  assistance  in  keeping  down  weeds  in  pastures.  Among 
the  more  common  pasture  weeds  in  different  sections  of  the 
country  are  squirrel-tail  grass  or  wild  barley,  broom  sedge, 
blue  vervain,  sheep  sorrel,  Russian  thistle,  milkweed,  mul- 
lein, yarrow,  and  Canada,  bull,  and  sow  thistles. 

711.  Roadside  Weeds.  The  weeds  of  roadsides  are 
usually  much  the  same  as  those  of  meadows  and  pastures, 
though  on  new  grading  annual  weeds  are  likely  to  make  a 
rank  growth.  Mowing  two  or  three  times  during  the  season 
to  prevent  the  production  of  seed,  and  seeding  the  roadsides 
heavily  to  grass  and  clover  will  keep  down  weeds  and  pre- 
vent their  spread  to  adjoining  fields.  The  more  common 
weeds  of  roadsides  are  ragweed,  kinghead,  sunflowers,  marsh 
elder,  cockle  bur,  bull  thistle,  Jimson  weed,  velvet  weed,  and 
sweet  clover. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  bring  in  five  weeds.     Learn  the 
names  of  these  weeds  and  describe  their  most  important  characteristics. 
This  study  should  include  their  habit  of  growth,  duration  and  nature 
of  root  system,  time  of  seeding,  seed  habits,  and  characters  which  make 
eradication  easy  or  difficult. 

2.  Make  a  study  of  weed  seeds,  so  that  each  member  of  the  class 
will  learn  to  recognize  the  more  common  weed  seeds  in  various  kinds 
of  field  seeds.    Samples  of  grain  and  forage-crop  seeds  brought  in  or 
prepared,  containing  weed  seeds,  may  be  inspected  and  the  weed  seed 
separated  and  identified.     Many  of  the  experiment  stations  put  up 
cases  containing  small  samples  of  the  more  common  weed  seeds,  which 
may  be  obtained  at  small  cost  and  used  for  purposes  of  identification. 
Several  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  listed  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  will 


540  FIELD  CROPS 

be  found  useful  in  making  a  study  of  weeds  and  their  seeds,  particularly 
No.  428,  "Testing  Farm  Seeds  in  the  Home  and  in  the  Rural  School." 
3.  If  small  vials  or  cases  can  be  provided,  each  pupil  might  make  a 
collection  of  the  seeds  of  the  most  common  weeds  of  the  vicinity.  This 
will  be  of  much  value  in  identifying  weed  seeds  in  the  seeds  of  field 
crops. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

28.  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 
86.  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants. 

188.  Weeds  Used  in  Medicine. 

194.  Alfalfa  Seed. 

260.  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities. 

279.  A  Method  of  Eradicating  Johnson  Grass* 

368.  The  Eradication  of  Bindweed  or  Wild  Morning  Glory. 

382.  The  Adulteration  of  Forage-Plant  Seeds. 

428.  Testing  Farm  Seeds  in  the  Home  and  in  the  Rural  School. 

464.  The  Eradication  of  Quack  Grass. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  110-118. 
Clark's  Farm  Weeds  of  Canada. 
Long's  Common  Weeds  of  the  Farm. 
Pammel's  Weeds  of  the  Farm  and  Garden. 
Shaw's  Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them. 


INDEX 


(References  are  to  pages.) 


Absorption  of  water,  31. 

Aftermath,   288. 

Agriculture,  definition  of,  12. 

Air,  use  of  by  plants,  32. 

Alfalfa,  374;  description,  374;  dis- 
eases, 386;  hay  making,  383;  inoc- 
ulation, 381;  insect  pests,  386; 
meadows,  treatment  of,  380;  meal, 
389;  nurse  crops  for,  381;  origin, 
374;  pasture,  388;  preparation  of 
land,  379;  production,  376;  rota- 
tions for,  387;  seed  production, 
384;  soils,  378;  sowing,  380;  uses, 
388;  varieties,  376;  weeds  in,  386; 
yield,  377. 

Alsike  clover,  371. 

Annual  grasses,   336. 

Annual  weeds,  523,  533. 

Army  worm,  107. 

Assimilation,  26. 


Barley,  212;  acre  value,  225;  acre 
yield,  218;  by-products,  229;  class- 
ification, 213,  221;  cost  of  produc- 
tion, 226;  description,  212;  diseas- 
es, 226;  exports,  225;  feeding  to 
stock,  229;  fertilizers,  220;  food, 
use  as,  229;  harvesting,  223;  har- 
rowing, 222;  hay,  230;  imports, 
225;  improvement,  231;  insect  ene- 
mies, 226;  irrigation,  223;  judging, 
231;  manufacture  of  malt  from, 
228;  market  grades,  224;  market- 
Ing,  224;  nurse  crop,  use  as,  228; 
origin,  212;  pasture,  230;  prepara- 
tion of  land,  220;  preparation  of 
seed,  221;  prices,  225;  production, 
216;  rotations,  227;  rust,  226; 
shocking,  223;  smut,  226;  soils, 
219;  sowing,  222,  228;  storing,  224; 
straw,  229;  thrashing,  224;  uses, 
228;  varieties,  216.' 

Barnyard  manure,  36.  (See  also  un- 
der the  various  crops.) 

Barnyard  millet,   345. 

Bean,  field,  405;  soy,  397;  velvet, 
410. 

Beet,  mangel,   412;  sugar,  451. 

Bermuda  grass,  326;  culture  of,  327: 
eradication,  328;  planting,  327; 
uses,  327. 

Biennial  weeds,  523,  533. 

Billion  dollar  grass,  345. 

Blue  grass,  Canada,  317,  320;  Ken- 
tucky, 316;  pasturing,  319;  seed- 
ing, 319. 

Brewers'  grains,  230. 

(541) 


Brome  grass,  331;  culture,  332; 
332. 

Broom  corn,  263;  culture,  263;  cur- 
ing, 264;  harvesting,  263;  market- 
ing, 264. 

Broomcorn  millet,  268,  345;  culture. 
269;  varieties,  269. 

Buckwheat,  265;  culture,  267;  de- 
scription, 265;  importance,  266; 
origin,  265;  uses,  267;  varieties, 
266.' 

Bunch  grass,  334. 

Bur  clover,   407. 

Cabbage,  419. 

Calcium,  36. 

Canada  blue  grass,  317. 

Canadian  field  pea,  403. 

Carbon  dioxid,  28. 

Carrots,   417. 

Cheat,  333. 

Chinch  bugs,  106,  167. 

Classification  of  crops,  11. 

Clover,  355;  alsike,  371;  crimson, 
372;  mammoth,  355;  red,  355; 
white,  370. 

Clover,  red,  355;  adaptation,  357; 
description,  355;  diseases,  368; 
dodder,  369;  harvesting  the  seed, 
367;  haymaking,  363;  importance, 
357;  insects,  369;  nurse  crop  for, 
362;  pasturing,  366;  preparation  of 
the  soil,  359;  production,  357;  ro- 
tations, 368;  seed,  359;  soil,  358; 
sowing,  360;  treatment,  363;  uses, 
366. 

Commercial  fertilizers,  37,  62.       (See 
also  under  the  various  crops.) 
Common   millet,    345. 

Corn,  47;  acre  value,  98;  as  food, 
109;  billbug,  105;  breeders,  need 
for,  128;  breeding,  123;  broom, 
263;  by-products,  110;  classes,  50; 
commercial  fertilizers,  62;  compo- 
sition, 119;  cost  of  production,  97; 
cribs,  83;  cultivation,  76,  99;  de- 
scription, 48;  dent,  50;  diseases, 
102;  ear-to-row  method  of  breed- 
ing, 124;  earworm,  108;  exports, 
96;  fall  plowing,  63;  flint,  51;  fod- 
der, 88;  germination,  67;  germina- 
tion box,  69;  grading  seed,  66; 
green  manures,  60;  harvesting,  81; 
harvesting  fodder,  90;  hogging  off, 
86;  importance,  53;  improvement, 
123;  inbreeding,  127;  judging,  1?9; 
length  of  time  to  mature,  50: 
manufactured  products,  109;  ma- 


542 


INDEX 


nure,  59;  market  grades,  95;  mar- 
keting, 94;  mixing  of  varieties,  49; 
nativity,  47;  pasturing  stalks,  86; 
pedigreed  varieties,  125;  planters, 
75;  planting,  71;  pop,  53;  prepara- 
tion of  land,  62;  prices,  95;  pro- 
duction, 53;  root  louse,  105;  root- 
worms,  107;  rotations,  98,  100; 
seed,66;  seed  plat,  128;  selection 
of  seed,  111;  shredding,  84;  silage, 
91;  smut,  102;  soils,  58;  storing, 
83;  storing  seed,  121;  stover,  84; 
sweet,  52;  time  to  select  seed,  111; 
type  to  select,  115;  uses,  109;  val- 
ue of  fodder,  88;  varieties,  49,  53, 
125;  weight  of  bushel,  94;  Wil- 
liams method  of  breeding,  125; 
yield,  56. 

Cotton,  464;  adaptation,  468;  baling, 
478;  cultivation,  475;  diseases,  481; 
description,  465;  Egyptian,  466; 
exports,  480;  fertilizers,  471;  fiber, 
466;  ginning,  477;  imports,  480; 
importance,  468;  India,  466;  in- 
sect pests,  480;  market  grades, 
479;  marketing,  479;  origin,  464; 
picking,  477;  planting,  474;  prep- 
aration of  land,  473;  prices,  480; 
production,  469;  Sea  Island,  466: 
soils,  471;  uses,  482;  varieties,  467. 

Cowpeas,  391;  adaptation,  391;  as 
green  manure.  396;  culture,  393; 
description,  391;  diseases,  396; 
fertilizers,  392;  harvesting  seed, 
394;  hay  making,  394;  insect 
pests,  396;  origin,  391;  rotations 
for,  397;  soils,  392;  uses,  394;  va- 
rieties, 392. 

Creeping  bent  grass,  323. 

Cribs,   corn,  83. 

Crimson  clover,  372. 

Crop  rotation,  503. 

Crops,  choice  of,  20;  classes  of,  11; 
fiber,  17,  463;  field,  12;  food,  19; 
forage,  16.  271;  grain,  14,  47;  root, 
18,  412;  sugar.  18.  451;  stimulant, 
19;  tuber,  18,  422;  uses  of,  19. 

Crosses,   43. 

Crows,  108. 

Cultivated  plants,  number  of.  12. 

Cultivation,    76,    99. 

Cultivators,    77. 

Cutworms,  104. 

Dent  corn,   50. 
Depth  to  plant  seeds,  25. 
Diversification  of  crops,  22. 
Durum  wheat,  141. 
Durra,  260. 

Elements  of  plant  food,  33. 
Emmer,  139. 
English  rye  grass,    334. 
Ergot,   237. 

Fanning  Mill,  use  of,   149. 


Fertilization,   42. 

Fertilizers,  commercial,  37. 

Fescues,  334. 

Fiber  crops,  17,  463. 

Field  bean,  405. 

Field  crops,   12. 

Field  pea,  403. 

Flax,   241,     484;     cleaning  seed,   246; 

description,     241;      diseases,     250; 

fiber,     243;     handling     fiber,     248; 

harvesting,    247;    importance,  243; 

improvement,     252;     insects,     250; 

market    grades,    249;    origin,    241; 

preparation    of    land,  245;    prices, 

249;     production,     243;      rotation, 

250;  soils,  245;    sowing,  247;    uses, 

251;  value,  249. 
Flint  corn,  51. 
Fodder  corn,  88. 
Food  crops,  19. 
Food,   plant,  33. 
Forage    crops,    16,    271;    composition 

of,  277. 
Formaldehyde    treatment    for   smut, 

166. 
Foxtail   millet,    341. 

German  millet,   344. 

Germination,  24;  box,  68;  of  small 
seed,  283. 

Gophers,  108. 

Graders,   corn,   66. 

Grain  crops,   14,   47. 

Grain  sorghums,  258. 

Grain   weevil,    108. 

Grass,  defined,  271,  307. 

Grass,  Bermuda,  326;  blue,  316;  bil- 
lion dollar,  345;  brome,  331;  or- 
chard, 324;  rye,  334;  wheat,  333; 
wood  meadow,  321. 

Grasses,  307;  annual,  336;  descrip- 
tion, 307,  importance,  309;  per- 
ennial, 311. 

Grasshoppers,  107,  167. 

Growth  of  plants,  necessities  for,  42. 

Hairy  vetch,   409. 

Hay,  291;  acre  value,  292;  acre 
yield,  292;  baling,  298;  curiner, 
296;  cutting,  293;  machinery,  297; 
market  grades,  299;  measuring, 
299;  production,  291:  storing,  297. 
(See  also  under  the  various  hay 
crops.) 

Hemp,     484. 

Hessian  fly,   167. 

Hogging  off  corn,  86. 

Horticulture,    definition    of,    12. 

Humus,  37. 

Hungarian  millet,  344. 

Hybrids,    43. 

Improvement  of  plants,   43. 
Inoculation,   352,   363,   381. 
Iron,  use  by  plants,   36. 


INDEX 


543 


Japan  clover.  408. 
Johnson   grass,    329. 
Judging,     barley,     231;      corn,     129; 
oats,  210;  wheat,   172. 

Kafir,  260. 

Kale,  420. 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  316. 

Kohlrabi,  419. 

Leaves,   functions  of,  26. 

Legumes,  348;  importance,  349;  in- 
oculation, 352;  nitrifying  bacteria 
on,  352;  nitrogen  gathering,  351. 

Lespedeza,   408. 

Lime,  use  of  by  plants,  36. 

Malt  sprouts,   230. 

Mammoth  clover,  355. 

Manure,  36,  59;  application  of,  516. 
(See  also  under  the  various 
crops.) 

Mangel,  412;  culture,  413;  harvest- 
ing, 416;  seeding,  415;  storing, 
416;  uses,  416. 

Meadow,  279;  care  of,  286,  314;  es- 
sentials of,  279;  formation  of, 
279;  improvement,  289;  perma- 
nent, 289;  preparation  of  land, 
281;  seeding,  284;  selection  of 
seed,  282;  soils  for,  280;  use  of 
mixtures  in,  280. 

Millet,  barnyard,  345;  brooracorn, 
268,  345;  common,  344;  foxtail, 
268,  341;  German,  344;  Hungarian, 
344;  pearl,  345. 

Milo,  260. 

Nitrifying  bacteria,    352. 

Nitrogen,  sources  of,  36;  stage  of 
growth  when  used,  38;  use  by 
plants,  33. 

Nurse  crops,  169,  204,  228,  284,  362, 
381. 

Oats,  175;  acre  value,  199;  acre 
yield,  183;  by-products,  207;  class- 
ification, 178;  cleaning  the  seed, 
188;  cost  of  production,  199;  de- 
scription, 176;  diseases,  201;  ex- 
ports, 198;  feeding  to  stock,  205; 
fertilizers,  185;  harrowing,  191; 
harvesting,  192;  hay,  208;  human 
food,  203;  importance,  181;  im- 
ports, 198;  improvement,  208;  in- 
sect pests,  201;  irrigation,  192; 
judging,  210;  legal  weight  of 
bushel,  198;  market  grades,  198; 
marketing,  196;  as  nurse  crop, 
204;  origin,  175;  as  pasture,  208; 
preparation  for  planting,  186; 
prices,  199;  production,  181;  ro- 
tations, 204;  rust,  201;  shocking, 
193;  smut,  202;  soils,  184;  sowing, 
189,  205;  stacking,  194;  storing, 
196;  straw,  207;  thrashing,  195; 
varieties,  178. 


Orchard  grass,   324. 

Pastures,  301;  essentials  of,  301; 
disking,  303;  formation  of,  301; 
importance,  301;  improving,  303; 
management,  304;  range,  306; 
renovation,  304. 

Pea,  field,  403. 

Peanut,  400;  adaptation,  400;  cul- 
ture, 401;  description,  400;  har- 
vesting, 402;  uses,  402. 

Pearl  millet,   345. 

Pedigreed   varieties,    125. 

Perennial  rye  grass,  334. 

Phosphorus,  35;  use  of,  39. 

Plant  food,  33;  sources,  of,  36. 

Pollination,  41. 

Pop    corn,     53. 

Potash,  35;   sources  of,    36. 

Potassium,  use  by  plants,  35. 

Potato,  422;  acre  yield,  426;  beetle, 
441;  blight,  439;  brown  rot,  440; 
cost  of  production,  437;  crossing, 
443;  cultivation,  433;  description, 
423;  diseases,  439;  exports,  438; 
fertilizers,  427;  harvesting,  433; 
imports,  438;  improvement,  443; 
insect  pests,  441;  irrigation,  433; 
manures,  427;  marketing,  437; 
origin,  422;  planters,  431;  plant- 
ing, 431;  preparing  the  land,  427; 
preparing  the  seed,  430;  prices, 
438;  production,  424;  relation- 
ships, 423;  rotations,  442;  scab, 
441;  seed,  428;  selection,  443; 
soils,  426;  sorting,  435;  storing, 
436;  spraying,  474;  varieties,  424. 

Quack  grass,   334,   524,   535. 

Rape,    87,  420. 

Red  clover,   355. 

Redtop,    321. 

Reproduction,  41. 

Rescue   grass,   333. 

Respiration,    28. 

Rice.  254;  conditions  for  growth, 
257;  culture,  257;  description,  254; 
importance,  256;  production,  256; 
uses,  258;  varieties,  255. 

Root  crops,   18,  412,   422. 

Roots,    30. 

Rotation  of  crops,  503;  advantages, 
504;  classes  of  crops  In,  511;  es- 
sentials of,  513;  for  Central 
states,  519;  for  Far  West,  520;  for 
New  England,  518;  for  North  At- 
lantic states,  518;  for  South- 
eastern states,  518;  length  of,  517. 

Rust,  barley,  226;  oats,  201;  wheat, 
165. 

Rutabaga,  418. 

Rye,  234;  culture,  236;  description, 
234;  diseases,  237;  ergot,  237;  im- 
portance, 234;  insect  enemies,  237; 
seeding,  237;  straw,  240;  uses,  238. 


544  INDEX 

Rye  grass,  334. 


Scab,  potato,  441;  wheat,  165. 

Score  card,  for  barley,  232;  corn, 
130;  oats,  210;  wheat,  173. 

Sedatives,  19. 

Seed,  what  it  is,  23;  good,  24; 
planting,  25. 

Seed  corn,  66;  plat,  128;  selection, 
113;  storing,  121;  time  to  select, 
111;  tree,  121;  value  of  good,  117. 

Selection,  43. 

Seed  production,  41. 

Silage,  91,  271. 

Small  grains  as  forage,  346. 

Smut,  barley,  226;  corn,  102;  oats, 
201;  wheat,  166. 

Soiling,  21,   271,  388. 

Sorghum,  grain,  258;  sweet,  336; 
uses,  338;  varieties,  340. 

Soybean,  397;  adaptation,  398;  cul- 
ture, 398;  description,  397;  har- 
vesting, 399;  uses,  399. 

Spraying  to  kill  weeds,  537. 

Spring  wheat,  140. 

'Starch,  28. 

Stimulants,  19. 

Stomata,  use  of,  29. 

Stover,  corn,  84,  271, 

Storing  of  food  by  plants,  27. 

Sugar  beet,  451;  adaptation,  452; 
by-products,  456;  culture,  453;  de- 
scription, 451;  feeding  value,  456; 
history,  451;  importance,  452; 
manufacture  of  sugar  from,  455; 
production,  452;  production  of 
seed,  454;  pulp,  456. 

Sugar  crops,  18,  451. 

Sugar  cane,  456;  adaptation,  457; 
crushing,  461;  cultivation,  460;  de- 
scription, 456;  harvesting,  460; 
propagation,  458;  production,  457. 

Sunlight,  need  of  by  plants,  39. 

Sweet  clover,  406. 

Sweet  corn,   52. 

Sweet  potato,  444;  adaptation,  445; 
description,  444;  digging,  448;  fer- 
tilizers, 445;  growing  the  plants, 
446;  preparation  of  the  soil,  447; 
setting  the  plants,  448;  uses,  449; 
varieties,  445. 

Teosinte,  346. 

Timothy,  311;  care  of  meadow,  314; 
description,  311;  fertilizers,  313; 
harvesting  the  seed,  316;  making 
hay,  314;  pasturing,  315;  soils, 
313;  sowing,  313;  value,  315. 

Tobacco,  487;  adaptation,  489;  culti- 
vation, 496;  curing,  499;  depcrip- 
tion,  488,  diseases,  497;  fertilizers, 
490;  grading,  501;  harvesting,  498; 


importance,  489;  improvement, 
497;  insects,  497;  marketing,  501; 
preparation  of  land,  495;  prepara- 
tion of  seed  bed,  491;  production, 
489;  returns,  502;  seed  selection, 
497;  setting  the  plants,  495;  soils, 
490;  sowing  the  seed,  493;  strip- 
ping, 501;  topping,  496;  types,  488. 

Translocation,   27. 

Transpiration,  29. 

Tuber  crops,  18,  422. 

Turnips,  418. 

Units  of  measure,  57. 

Vegetable  matter,   36. 
Velvet  bean,  410. 
Vetches,   409. 

Water,  absorption  of,  31;  quantity 
transpired,  29;  vise  of,  39. 

Weeder,  use  of,  77. 

Weeds,  522;  annual,  523,  533;  bien- 
nial, 523;  533;  agencies  in  spread 
of,  529;  benefits  from,  528;  classi- 
fication, 522;  effects,  524;  eradica- 
tion of,  533;  in  cultivated  fields, 
534;  in  grain  fields,  535;  in  mead- 
ows, 537;  in  pastures,  538;  along 
roadsides,  539;  laws,  532;  perenni- 
als, 523,  533;  spraying  for,  537.  . 

Wheat,  135;  acre  yield,  144;  bran, 
170;  breeding,  171;  classification, 
138;  cleaning  seed,  149;  club, 
139;  composition  of,  170;  cost  of 
production,  162;  description,  136; 
diseases,  165;  durum,  139,  141;  ex- 
ports, 161;  feed  for  live  stock,  170; 
fertilizers,  146;  flour,  169;  formal- 
dehyde treatment  for  smut,  166; 
grading  seed,  149;  growth,  season 
of,  136;  harrowing,  152;  harvest- 
ing, 152,  153;  imports,  161;  im- 
provement, 171;  insect  enemies, 
167;  judging,  172;  manures,  146; 
market  grades,  160;  marketing, 
159;  nurse  crop,  169;  origin,  135; 
preparing  land  for  planting,  147; 
preparing  seed,  148;  prices,  161; 
production,  141,  162;  relationships, 
135;  rotations,  168;  shocking,  153; 
soils,  145;  sowing,  150;  spring, 
140;  stacking,  156;  storing,  159; 
thrashing,  157,  164;  use  as  food, 
169;  velvet  chaff,  141;  varieties, 
138,  150;  winter,  139. 

Wheat  grasses,   333. 

AVhite  clover,  370. 

Wilting,   31. 

Winter  wheat,  139. 

Wireworms,   103. 

Wood  meadow  grass,   321. 


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graphs and  drawings,  printed  on  high  grade  paper  from  clear  type,  and  is  handsomely 
bound  in  durable  cloth  covers.  Price,  $1.50  net. 

Every  effort  has  been  made  by  authors  and  publishers  to  make  these  books 
interesting,   practical,   and   reliable.     Instructors,  teachers,   and    students   of    agri- 
culture in  general  will  find  these  books  admirably  suitable  as   text  books  and  as 
sources  of  information  and  inspiration    in  these  four  great  divisions  of  agriculture. 
Send  all  orders  to  WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,  Saint  Paul,  Minnesota 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIF' 


U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


